18th and 19th Century

¶ … eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw change of a manner and magnitude never before experienced in world history. Technological, governmental, and ideological transformations made the nineteenth century span the gap between the modern world and the ancient world. "At the start of the century, life was not so very different from Roman times -- although a Roman would have been very shocked by the state of the roads and the filthy towns. But by the end of the century life was not so very different from the world we know today." (Chamberlin 6). By this interpretation of events, the middle ages in Europe had taken well over a millennium to finally match the living conditions and way of life enjoyed by the Romans; however, the next hundred years would be a period of unprecedented change and social upheaval. Largely, these changes were associated, in some way, with the industrial revolution, which reorganized the economy, the city, travel, the government, and warfare. New ways of life demanded new ways of interpreting the world. This was a time of accelerating change, and would usher in a new century that would dwarf the achievements attained.

The end of the eighteenth century saw two particularly important political advancements generated by massive social unrest: the American Revolution, and the French Revolution. The unique facet of these movements was that they openly rejected the established monarchic and oligarchic governments that had been the norm in Europe since the decline of Roman democracy. These revolutions sought to adopt the Roman and Greek notions of democracy, but to also take them one step further: these revolutions aimed to grant the freedoms of such a form of rule, not only to wealthy land owners and businessmen, but to the commoners based solely upon his citizenship. The Americans set the tone is 1776 with their formal secession from Great Britain and later with the American Constitution. The French were soon to follow the example, spurred by their own unprecedented levels of social instability and rampant poverty. Although both were founded upon high ideals, each would lead to additional changes and conflicts that would, in turn, change the course of history. By the close of the eighteenth century, the western world was on the brink of colossal advancement: "The time is 1800. In Europe, a brilliant French general is leading his troops over the Alps to conquer a newborn nation -- and then, he hopes, the world. . . . In North America, an ex-slave is leading a revolution. From continent to continent, things are happening." (Ashby 7). In short, both of these revolutions possessed unforeseen consequences that would be played out in the following century: the Americans had divided their country, in a number of ways, between the north and the south; the French had unleashed a terror and spree of executions that, implausibly, demanded a military dictatorship to uphold the principles of democracy.

One of the most significant ways in which the western world changed during the nineteenth century was associated with transportation. "In 1800, the only way to travel on land was on your own two legs, or to use an animal. By 1900 steam trains were carrying millions of people at what seemed to be fantastic speeds. At sea, in 1800, ships were propelled by wind; if the wind stopped, the ship stopped. . . . By 1900, iron and steel ships steamed the oceans, regardless of whether the wind blew or not." (Chamberlin 6). Primarily, these changes were brought about by advancements in the refining of steel, and the invention of the steam engine. The consequences for travel and commerce in the United States and Europe were enumerable. Additionally, the social makeup of the land was drastically changed by these forces. In the United States, for example, when the Union Pacific Railroads traversed the thousands of miles of American soil; often, if the railways failed to pass through an existing town, the people moved away; in fact, new towns and cities were often formed by virtue of where the railroads converged. This began another large trend that would continue to this day: the urbanization of the developed world.

Essentially, it was during the nineteenth century that an increasing number of people began to move away from rural farming communities and into the city. This was made possible by the vast distances that goods and foods could be transported. In other words, cities were able to be supported by larger areas of land because these new modes of transportation could supply people's needs with greater efficiency. The move to the city was also fostered by what came to be known as the Industrial Revolution. This revolution began in cloth factories in England, but soon spread throughout Europe and the Americas, and altered the manner in which many previously home made goods were produced. Businessmen discovered that they could increase production and lower costs by setting up massive plants by which products could be manufactured far more quickly. This generated far more urban jobs, thus contributing greatly to the swelling western cities.

This new form of manufacturing also managed to drastically increase the quality and quantity of military weaponry. The American Civil War, seeded by the American Revolution, drove much of this advancement in warfare, with disastrous results. Guns produced in independent factories became more reliable, more powerful, more accurate, and far more easy to handle. However, by the 1860's military tactics had changed little since Napoleon's time. This lead to casualties and carnage on a massive scale; unmatched until the First World War. The war did, however, formally unify the United States and abolish slavery in the Americas.