History of project management at the dawn of civilization can be looked at from two different civilisations -- Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. In this section both of these civilsations will be looked at from the perspective of cconstruction technology, architectural design, culture, science, economics, labour, and management, which all led to the creation of the master builder. The first ancient societies arose in Mesopotamia and Egypt in the Middle East. These civilisations had certain features in common. They built cities, invented forms of writing, learned to make pottery and use metals, domesticated animals, and created fairly complex social structures that included class systems.
It is possible to say that the concept of project management has been around since the beginning of history. It has enabled leaders to plan bold and massive projects and manage funding, materials and labour within a designated time frame. What leaders from the distant past managed to accomplish is amazing to say the least. Civilisation has long been practicing an anonymous management system for accomplishing tasks carried out by them since the beginning of time. Today we can witness Pyramids and Roman structures, as one of most exceptional achievements human workforces had ever delivered. The concept of project management has always been around in the womb of our civilisation from the beginning, but its name has been coined and structured by our modern world.
Societies worked in terms of adaptation to an external environment, since the internal dynamics in any society as its members seek to meet multiple objectives lead to social and cultural innovations. As society as a whole coped with innovations, its pre-existing relationships with it resources often changed. This evolutionary development, which was not unilinear, gradual, or universal, has been marked by a major transformation in the way societies managed their resources and prospered.
4.1.3 Conclusion
A basic scan of the notable achievements of ancient builders at the dawn of civilisation reveals some of the most significant structures in human history. Among these is the Great Ziggurat of Ur, the Tower of Babylon, the Hanging Gardens, the Great Pyramid at Giza, These structures came out of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian civilisations as enduring monuments which had irrepressible effects on the history of architecture. All of these structures have been analysed in this research project. Most of them are still standing today. None of them could have been completed without the separation of responsibilities and the advanced skills required for design, engineering, construction, and project management.
The conclusions reached in this research demonstrate that this era of project activities was foundational for all that followed. In it, the very concept of the master builder was created, along with the first surviving monuments that archaeology can still study. The history reveals the kinds of changes that took place in construction, management, and technology as a result of cultural and scientific pressures. What follows will sketch some of these important conclusions and evaluate the impact of these changes on project activities.
Prior to classical antiquity, humans built upon the knowledge and traditions of the previous period. For the ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians, it is impossible to know what these previous traditions were, since with these civilisations recorded history begins. It is clear with these early civilisations, however, that earlier knowledge from other cultures was sought out, accumulated, systematised, and applied. This intellectual growth produced many enhancements to life in general, and to project management and the construction of buildings specifically.
The basic elements of thinking and reasoning were developed by the earliest civilisations through the study of mathematics, written communication, law, medicine, production optimisation, astronomy, and science. For example, the Mesopotamians created a theory of disease epidemiology, while the Egyptians formed the first alphabet. Many of these discoveries and achievements helped to produce both tangible and intangible infrastructures around which society organized itself, such as the concept of calendar time based on astronomy and mathematics. Without such intellectual advancements, building and organisational programs would not have been possible.
There were many other significant developments in ancient culture that influenced and extended the idea of labour and resource management. The Mesopotamians used written codes and laws to organise their society and economic system, applying these in addition to their understanding of the natural world and the gods who controlled it. Control was introduced through written codes used to manage daily relationships and business transactions. Ancient Egypt expanded management to include the planning and implementation of vast undertakings such as the pyramids. The Egyptians developed methods for planning, organising, and managing the decision-making process on such large projects. This evidence suggests that management and social organisation were thought out in ancient society, rather than being merely based on haphazard processes. Given this environment, project management could be expected to follow similar principles, since it was culturally rooted in other areas of life such as law, politics, communication, and economics.
Through the ages of early civilisation, construction techniques, tools, and materials likewise evolved. The Mesopotamians used mud-bricks to build homes and buildings with columns, domes, and arches. Later on they invented tar to reinforce the brick structures and provide waterproofing, which, combined with drainage systems, made their monuments and homes more durable. Such permanence was necessary given the change from a nomadic society to a sedentary agricultural society that lived in stable clusters. This facilitated the need for civil engineering and the use of the wheel and the pump for the transportation of water.
Around the same time, ancient Egypt contributed new construction methodologies such as quarrying and the ramp. Quarrying led to stone such as granite and limestone replacing mud bricks. The ramp allowed buildings to expand in height and mass. Egypt also introduced a distinction between craftsmen and engineers. Within this trajectory it becomes clear how evolving technology responds to the needs of early human society. It shows further how changes in knowledge, social organisation, and managerial practises influenced the tools, technology, and materials used for construction.
In turn, the tools, technology, and materials available altered the role of the master builder, the project management, and the structures that were built. During these periods the master builder was the architect, the engineer, and the builder all in one role. Craftsmen worked with the master builder to improve and hone their skills. The master builder engineered tools to improve the transportation of materials to the work site. Additionally, the role of master builder was beginning to emphasise architectural skills over other skills. This was the beginning of the separation of architect from builder, but it was not complete.
The projects constructed during pre-classical antiquity increased in size, purpose, and complexity from their respective previous ages. Mesopotamian culture began the evolution of construction with the development of ziggurats and bridges. The Egyptians created the pyramids as resting places for their kings. This progressive increase in the size, sophistication, and intricacy of construction projects reflects the progressive growth of architectural tools, materials, and technology.
Project management in the context of this research is defined as the successful use of material and human resources to construct a building. In the ancient world, project managers operated with limited tools to mine and shape materials, and limited technologies to transport and utilise those materials. Therefore projects spanned many lifetimes. Often the original purpose of the building changed as the leadership of the empires changed also. The design of the building altered as master builders retired or as new techniques and tools were created. The master builder was always responsible for the design and supervision of building construction. He created tools and machines to reduce the build time. He knew that his labour force would need to be replenished on a continual basis; therefore, he needed to orchestrate the transfer of learning and skills between the generations.
The role of master builder was crucial in society. His design and building work expressed the religious and national values of the civilisation. The ziggurat shrines, the pyramidal tombs, and the temples were all instantiations of the belief systems that guided daily life. In addition, there were more secular buildings such as palaces, assembly halls, amphitheatres, and gardens that expressed the cultural pride and ancestral heritage of each civilisation. All of them rose out of the aesthetic influences of their cultures and the deeply held worldviews associated with agrarian life or empire alike. As master builders perfected their arts, construction expanded from homes and religious structures to include infrastructures that facilitated the transportation of people, raw materials, and water. The creation of these infrastructures improved life for all. The master builder was the leader of this improvement and the director of cultural and national expression.
The study of early Mesopotamian architecture is possible because of archaeological substantiation, which consists of pictorial depictions of structures, and texts on structures. Scholarly text often looks at temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other colossal buildings. The area of Mesopotamia is thought to be the cradle of civilization, because of the fact that it is one of the first confirmable areas of planned urbanization and domestication of plants and animals
It has been discovered through aarchaeological surveys of early Mesopotamian cities that they often used materials that were easily accessible in the Fertile Crescent area, like mud brick, plaster, and wood. Houses permitted the people to move from a nomadic existence to a settled and more organized way of life. The majority of the houses were square with other rooms built on. The palaces of the early Sumerian culture were the political, economic and religious focal points of the city; large-scale, lavishly decorated, and consisted of rooms used to house craftsmen and such. Archaeological finds have also revealed them to be temples and burial chambers for the elite, as well as library complexes, armories, and entertainment halls decorated with pictorial and mythological figures.
It was during the time of the Sumerian civilisation transitioning from nomadic hunting to agriculture, that many changes occurred as the population grew and more force was exerted on the local food supply. This necessitated more organization and administration that led to non-tribal leadership with its own political, economic and religious arrangement. Mesopotamia's expansion led to a wide assortment of striking advances including domesticated techniques for flora and fauna, an extensive irrigation system that was essential to the economy, codified measurements for measuring time and angles, cuniform writing and recordkeeping, a government with specific rules and regulations, a formal medical system with diagnosis and planning, a trade and market economy using commodity metrics fixed in legal code, and standardized rules for property ownership and monetary compensation for legal infractions.
Egypt was thought to be the rational continuation of Mesopotamia, and there were many similarities in political and social development. Yet, despite both civilizations existing at the same time, it was Egypt that lasted the longest and fashioned the basis of the Great Mediterranean Civilizations. Ancient Egypt was successful mainly because it was able to adjust to the varying circumstances of the Nile Valley. It was as a result significant for the society to develop a hierarchy of prediction of flooding, planting times, harvest times, storage of grain for lean years, all of which required a more superior political and social hierarchy which engendered mathematics, writing, management, and a stratification of labor, including scribes and overseers.
Egypt has provided humanity with a rich treasure of innovative and creative forms of architecture. The most significant were royal tombs which started with the earliest years of the civilization. The labour force required for monumental Egyptian construction projects involved many thousands of workers. A lot of would have been peasants, as in Mesopotamia, who worked for pay during the off-season from farming. The rest were thought to be slaves. These labourers worked as stone haulers and setters. Many are thought to have been skilled masons, while the others were only for their muscle. There is no suggestion that there was any type of organized labour in Egypt. Craft skill was present but it was not that advanced. The master builders were thought to be noblemen who were educated in mathematics and astronomy. Their role included all aspects of project management, from design, engineering, and building to administration. Those surrounding them may have risen through the ranks of the engineering class. They were skilled in management and planning, using alphabetic writing and papyrus to keep track of resources, materials, labour, and accounting as well as to correspond with royal and religious patrons.
As the Egyptian culture evolved from a hunter-gatherer population it united under the first pharaoh. This unification allowed a nation with statecraft, political and social goals, and a sense of shared culture. In many ways, Egypt was the southern counterpart of Mesopotamia, with many similarities in political and social development. However, the monotheistic Egyptian civilisation lasted longer, partially because had an advanced political and social hierarchy that could predict the varying conditions of the Nile Valley and the planting season.
It was during this time that there were great advances in mathematics, writing, scribal administration, and labour stratification, as well as solar and luna calendars, shipbuilding, empirical anatomical and medical knowledge, astronomy, and geometry. The legacies of ancient Egypt passed to Greece and Rome through cultural exchange and Egyptian fraction monetary units were extended in use and diversity to Greek, early Islamic culture, and medieval cultures. Land management was crucial, and taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned. It was also during this time that trade was conducted with neighboring countries in order to obtain rare goods that could not be obtained elsewhere.
There are many things and process that were developed during this era that can still be seen today. This was a time when societies evolved out of necessity. As tools and process were invented the ways in which things were done and the materials with which they were done also changed. Civilisations often designed their buildings based upon the architectural influences of the period before. So even though the tools and processes evolved the influence remained, especially in the design and decoration of the buildings going forward. This same concept is also true with the project management processes that were used back then but yet have been named and codified today.
4.2.0 Introduction
History of project management of the Classical Antiquity can be also looked at from two different civilisations -- Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. In this section both of these civilsations will be looked at from the perspective of cconstruction technology, architectural design, culture, science, economics, labour, and management, which all led to the creation of the master builder during this time period.
Only Greek architecture in the time before Alexander carries an authentic, ethnic designation. The ancient Greeks were notoriously dismissive those who spoke Greek non-natively or not at all. The incredible conquests of Alexander and the subsequent application of a veneer of Greek city states to a base of Egyptian, Semitic, and Iranian populations produced an important change. Politically and culturally, there was not one singular or monolithic "Greek culture." Instead Greece consisted of several hundred city-states that were sovereign and independent, Sparta and Athens being the best known, which often battled each other. Over time the political structure limited democracy for male Greek citizens in Athens, a tradition that was rediscovered during the Renaissance period in Europe
The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes, creating a new architectural style. The Romans absorbed Greek and Phoenician influence, apparent in many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Romans, similarly, were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, such as hydraulics and in the construction of arches. Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use.
4.2.3 Conclusion
A basic scan of the notable achievements of ancient builders of the classical antiquity reveals some of the most significant structures in human history. Among these are the Parthenon, Caesar's Rhine Bridge, the Colosseum, and the Pantheon. These structures came out of the Greek, and Roman civilisations as enduring monuments which had irrepressible effects on the history of architecture. All of these structures have been analysed in this research project. Most of them are still standing today. None of them could have been completed without the separation of responsibilities and the advanced skills required for design, engineering, construction, and project management.
The conclusions reached in this research demonstrate that this era of project activities was foundational for all that followed. In it, the very concept of the master builder was created, along with the first surviving monuments that archaeology can still study. The history reveals the kinds of changes that took place in construction, management, and technology as a result of cultural and scientific pressures. What follows will sketch some of these important conclusions and evaluate the impact of these changes on project activities.
During the classical antiquity, humans built upon the knowledge and traditions of the previous period. It is clear with the Greek and Roman civilisations, however, that earlier knowledge from other cultures was sought out, accumulated, systematised, and applied. This intellectual growth produced many enhancements to life in general, and to project management and the construction of buildings specifically.
The basic elements of thinking and reasoning were developed by the earliest civilisations through the study of mathematics, written communication, law, medicine, production optimisation, astronomy, and science. For example, Ancient Greece formulated the democratic principles of political organisation for use in the leadership of its city-states. The Roman Empire made great strides in the transportation of water for domestic and agricultural use. Many of these discoveries and achievements helped to produce both tangible and intangible infrastructures around which society organized itself, such as the concept of calendar time based on astronomy and mathematics. Without such intellectual advancements, building and organisational programs would not have been possible.
There were many other significant developments in ancient culture that influenced and extended the idea of labour and resource management. In ancient Greece, Socrates viewed management as distinct from technical mastery and documented the importance of delegation. Additionally, the ancient Greeks developed a democratic concept of leadership with checks and balances to limit the power of individual leaders. The Roman Empire used managerial delegation and alliance formation, which provided the necessary social structure to manage a large and well-populated geographical space. By creating a chain of command, its leaders were able to create a vast transportation network, to develop a disciplined military, and to extend its government to include executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This evidence suggests that management and social organisation were thought out in ancient society, rather than being merely based on haphazard processes. Given this environment, project management could be expected to follow similar principles, since it was culturally rooted in other areas of life such as law, politics, communication, and economics.
Through the ages of early civilisation, construction techniques, tools, and materials likewise evolved. With Roman builders, concrete was invented for stronger and faster building, which revolutionized construction. Within this trajectory it becomes clear how evolving technology responds to the needs of early human society. It shows further how changes in knowledge, social organisation, and managerial practises influenced the tools, technology, and materials used for construction.
In turn, the tools, technology, and materials available altered the role of the master builder, the project management, and the structures that were built. During these periods the master builder was the architect, the engineer, and the builder all in one role. Craftsmen worked with the master builder to improve and hone their skills. The master builder engineered tools to improve the transportation of materials to the work site. Additionally, the role of master builder was beginning to emphasise architectural skills over other skills. This was the beginning of the separation of architect from builder, but it was not complete.
The projects constructed during classical antiquity increased in size, purpose, and complexity from their respective previous ages. Ancient Greece created and mastered the use of columns as part of the support structure of its temples, which enabled the development of the pediment and the marble tiled roof, such as on the Parthenon. The Romans advanced building design and construction by improving on the column and by utilising and strengthening arches. These improvements enabled the building of wooden bridges and arcaded aqueducts over rivers and valleys, the construction of massive public buildings like the Colosseum, and the erection of the first concrete domes like that in the Pantheon. This progressive increase in the size, sophistication, and intricacy of construction projects reflects the progressive growth of architectural tools, materials, and technology.
Project management in the context of this research is defined as the successful use of material and human resources to construct a building. In the ancient world, project managers operated with limited tools to mine and shape materials, and limited technologies to transport and utilise those materials. Therefore projects spanned many lifetimes. Often the original purpose of the building changed as the leadership of the empires changed also. The design of the building altered as master builders retired or as new techniques and tools were created. The master builder was always responsible for the design and supervision of building construction. He created tools and machines to reduce the build time. He knew that his labour force would need to be replenished on a continual basis; therefore, he needed to orchestrate the transfer of learning and skills between the generations.
The role of master builder was crucial in society. His design and building work expressed the religious and national values of the civilisation. The Greek temples and the Roman structures were all instantiations of the belief systems that guided daily life. In addition, there were more secular buildings such as, assembly halls and amphitheatres that expressed the cultural pride and ancestral heritage of each civilisation. All of them rose out of the aesthetic influences of their cultures and the deeply held worldviews associated with agrarian life or empire alike. As master builders perfected their arts, construction expanded from homes and religious structures to include infrastructures that facilitated the transportation of people, raw materials, and water. The creation of these infrastructures improved life for all. The master builder was the leader of this improvement and the director of cultural and national expression.
Roman architecture was often determined based upon the requirements of Roman religion. For instance, the Pantheon was an amazing engineering feat created for religious purposes, and its design - the large dome and open spaces - was made to fit the requirements of the religious services. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights. Every city of some size also maintained a forum. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, and meetings.
Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.
Roman architects invented Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or more frequently bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.
Roman influence can still be seen today. The reason of Roman culture resonating among modern building styles is due to the structural genius of the dome and the arch. When a building has substantial weight bearing down on lower levels, columns can easily support the weight when it is distributed through an arch, reducing the strain significantly. The arch, for this reason, is the most famous and most modernly used aspect of Roman architecture and can be seen nearly anywhere. The Dome is not used as frequently among modern buildings, but it is widely used to show prominence and elegance.
There were two main styles or "orders" of early Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic. These names reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and austere; the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders.
Most surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis are Ionic however. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Records show that the evolution of the Ionic order was resisted by many Greek States, as they claimed it represented the dominance of Athens. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives, so Greek art and architecture was at its apex during this time.
The temple was the most common and best-known form Greek public architecture. Temples served as storage places for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, as the location of a cult image, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. The inner room of the temple, the cella, served mainly as a strongroom and storeroom. It was usually lined by another row of columns. Some Greek temples were oriented astronomically, as they believed the stars and planets were holy and represented holes to the heavens.
Other architectural forms used by the Greeks were the tholos or circular temple, of which the best example is the Tholos of Theodorus at Delphi dedicated to the worship of Athena Pronaia; the propylon or porch, forming the entrance to temple sanctuaries (the best-surviving example is the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens); the fountain house, a building where women filled their vases with water from a public fountain; and the stoa, a long narrow hall with an open colonnade on one side, which used to house rows of shops in the agoras (commercial centers) of Greek towns. A completely restored stoa, the Stoa of Attalus, can be seen in Athens.
Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens. These peripterally enclosed space open to the sky were used for athletic contests and exercise. Greek towns also needed at least one bouleuterion or council chamber, a large public building which served as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule). Because the Greeks did not use arches or domes, they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces. The bouleuterion thus had rows of internal columns to hold the roof up (hypostyle). It is believed that no examples of these buildings still survive.
5.1 Conclusion
Indeed, to investigate the history of project management is itself to understand the historical development of the areas of expertise and their application to the project activities. The work reviewed in this research paper has indicated that project management is as old as humankind and that even ancient history presents the development of different areas of expertise and their application to various project activities. The history of project management shows that it is a dynamic field, changing and evolving in creative and innovative ways to meet the demands of its context. There is nothing static about it. Without this constant development, the ideas we have about construction and the notions that inform project management would lack a solid historical foundation and risk falling into old errors easily avoided through such knowledge.
The investigation into the history of project management becomes clear as the research findings are examined through the organising process of the problem set that was proposed at the outset of the study, namely:
The cultural environment in which project activities were performed;
The scientific and economic environments which facilitated problem solving, decision making, and development of the right skills and tools to get the projects done;
The general management skills which determined how resources were allocated and optimized;
The architectural principles, construction techniques and tools used to design and execute the project;
The professional traditions, which includes the organisation of labour to manage the projects;
The project activities, which includes an examination of historically valuable buildings.
Project management has evolved alongside the cultural, scientific and economic environments. As general management skills, architectural principles, construction tools, and techniques evolved, so did the professional tradition and project activities. It has moved in stride with the fluid and changing project environments. It has adopted and shared general management skills presented in other spheres, in some cases even inspiring them. It has existed in dynamic interaction with the fields of science, mathematics, economics, politics, and religion down through the centuries. Many of the technological advances in civilisation have come as a response to building projects that challenged the minds and abilities of skilled master builders, engineers, and craftsmen, encouraging them to find new ways to lift heavy materials or build more stable structures, or new ways to express religious worship or national pride. This great and winding path has been traced, dissected, and integrated into a series of important conclusions about the way history, technology, social organisation, and leadership interweave through time and context. A mature cultural environment gives rise to civilisation and leads to various project activities. A mature scientific and economic environments leads to efficient management skills, elegant architectural design principles and sophisticated construction techniques and tools. Mature management skills, construction techniques, and tools allow for a professional tradition. The application of these environments, knowledge, skills, techniques, tools, and traditions to project activities makes project management possible.
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