Conclusion frameworks and synthesis approaches

History Of the Areas of Expertise and Their

Application To Project Activities

History with its flickering lamp stumbles along the trail of the past, trying to reconstruct its scenes, to revive its echoes, and kindle with pale gleams the passion of former days.

Winston Churchill

The historical review conducted in chapter 2 can now be presented and analysed. This chapter will consider and summarise the data given there. The data will be investigated by obtaining significant results concerning development within the historical periods addressed by this research study. The same guiding categories will be utilised to arrange the analysis, namely:

Cultural environment

Scientific environment

Economic environment

General management

Architectural principles

Construction technology

The Master builder tradition

Analysis of project activities

In practice, these items are closely interwoven and interact to form the field of project management as a whole; they are separated in this work only for ease of presentation and analysis. The analytical presentation in this chapter will be used to develop the interpretive synthesis of the history of modern project management in the next chapter. Through a careful study of events and practices related to these research categories, the discussion will trace circumstances at different historical periods that affected the development of the areas of expertise and their application to project activities. As a continuation of the previous chapters, the goals are to recapitulate the historical data and extend the clarity and significance of that information. By understanding the historical development of the areas of expertise and their application to project activities in this way, the history of the modern project management will be detailed and unfolded.

Science and technology have advanced over the centuries, as have cultural environments, economic developments, and management skills. It is these types of changes that this research attempts to discuss and synthesise using historical examples of building projects. The goal of this work is to examine how historical circumstances have influenced architectural principles, construction technology, and professional tradition down through the various historical periods of modern Western history. Undoubtedly, building construction is a dynamic field for historical research. Much can be learned about social organisation, engineering, and technology, as well as aesthetics, through investigating the history of important buildings. Therefore, the chapter will end with an analytical summary of the contribution of these buildings and will look forward to the next chapter's synthesis of the findings.

3.1 Cultural Environment

Quality is the result of a carefully constructed cultural environment.

It has to be the fabric of the organisation, not part of the fabric.

-- Philip B. Crosby

3.1.0. Introduction

Project activities are performed within a particular historical, political, and social context. The study of the cultural environment of a historical period in modern Western history is essentially the study of the past, usually from written sources. In other words, it is the study of recorded cultural history. Archaeology, reinforced by written records, provides us with extremely important indications of the varied cultures and their particular cultural practices. However, when we speak of cultural history, we refer to something more complex, intricate, and interrelated than just recorded facts and data.

What is understood by culture and, more specifically, cultural history? The cultural history of a people records the past in terms of the broad interaction of the various aspects of that society. These can include how historical, political, and social milieu and other variables intersecting to create the unique mix of perception. Cultural history, therefore, refers to the fabric of that particular society. In essence, the study of cultural history refers to the unique and distinctive identity and quality that the civilisation or group under discussion has built up. This can also include the study of aspects such as rituals, belief systems, as well as class and social stratification that constitute the nature of that society. Cultural historians have emphasised that every society or civilisation has its own shape, purpose, and meaning. Identity is expressed in activities, arts, and institutions of learning.

However, while it is important to consider each culture in relation to its own particular identity and context, it is equally important to consider the effects of that culture on other cultures. When we study the culture of each historical period, we tend to look at each different society as if it were essentially autonomous: there was the Renaissance, then the Scientific Revolution, then the Industrial Revolution, and so forth. However, while there are of course core practices, habits, and beliefs that distinguish each society, there are many key connections with other cultures as well. Societies share and borrow from each other all the time; indeed, one might argue that the level of "borrowing" from one culture to the next is at the level of grand larceny.

When one thinks about it, there is every reason for societies to borrow from each other in the same way that one generation learns from its predecessor and passes on what it has learned. Some of what different societies passed along to each other took the form of technological advancements -- for example, Baroque builders took the technology of Renaissance builders and developed it into a uniquely Baroque style; Machine Age builders took the technology of the Industrial Revolution and developed it into a uniquely the Machine Age style

The following section will deal with various prominent modern cultures. It will examine them in terms of their own unique identities and their intersections with other cultures and cultural developments.

3.1.1 History of the Cultural Environment

Early Modern Era

The Renaissance Period lasted from the mid of the 15th century until the early part of the 17th century. It is focused on having a political and intellectual rebirth. Some of the most important characteristics during this period include reforms in learning and education, revision of the perspectives of Christianity, and having new insights on subjects which were traditional by nature (Brooks). In the field of arts, realism has emerged. In the field of philosophy, there has also been a more realistic portrayal of life, compared to the previous portrayals which were mostly idealistic.

This period has continued the traditions of the Romans and the Greek, especially with regards to medieval rediscovery. Different advanced technologies have been introduced and have led into a higher level of progress and urbanization. In the field of art, the trend is towards realism. In the field of governance, feudalism has been replaced by the rise of capitalism. Europe was able to gain more power all over the globe through the territories which were colonized. The Renaissance has demonstrated and evolution and movement towards the same direction from the earlier medieval period (Starn 122-4). The classical Roman life has played a significant role during this period. The architects have also used antiquate principles in structural engineering during this period. The book entitled De Architectura was able to document some of the fundamentals and principles that have guide the tradition of master builders during this period. This book was also a demonstration of the renewed interest in this period with regards to the dissemination of knowledge and improvement in the field of education.

Vespucci was one of the people who contributed during this period, specifically with his international voyages that occurred from 1490 to 1500 (O'Gorman 106), which has led into the expansion of international trade. Although there were some who claim that the traditions during this period were rooted from the earlier periods, many people from the field of arts were grounded on the belief that the Renaissance period is extremely different, and it is not similar to any of the periods that existed before such (Woods and Elmer). There were several developments that lead into modernity, and one of the famous examples of such would be Leonardo Da Vinci (Osbrone). With the many contributions of the Renaissance, some of the most prominent would be multi-disciplinary focus and artistic excellence. The artists who have been popular during this period became very famous and they were among the ones who were most studied up to the present time. The artists were very much productive during this period.

During the Scientific Revolution, which has been apparent from the early part of the 17th century to the mid-part of the 18th century, logical reasoning became prominent. Aside from scientific improvement and newness, this period has coincided with Baroque. Baroque refers to a style of art and architecture that became popular during the early part of the period and has been recognized as the response of the Catholic to the simplicity that has been introduced by the Protestants. This has led into the presence of a style that is emotionally accessible, and that is highly demonstrative of the power and wealth of Catholicism.

According to many people, one of the key characteristics of the Scientific Period is that it has taken an empirical and logical approach to analysis. It has popularized the use of treatise and book, definition of what can be observed, and having the truth as the outcome. Because the interpretation makes use of the merging of text and observation, it was thought to lead into the presence of a higher level of accuracy and reliability (Burckhardt). It was founded on the knowledge that spurred during the Renaissance and has placed significance on rational thought and cultural emphasis, which was not present before.

Furthermore, with regards to the popularity of Baroque during this period, it is important to note that this style was able to combine the principles of science and the philosophies and doctrines of early Christianity, which has been very prominent in architectures built on such style. During the earlier period, the Renaissance, art was simpler and characterized by simple rhythms. With Baroque, however, a dynamic change has occurred, as art and architecture became more ostentatious and it has shown how art can move from the previous period (Saisselin).

The Scientific Revolution has presented a new perspective and shows a shift from the orthodox. It has also allowed the use of the past in order to create the future. In the field of arts, the Baroque style showed a bolder perspective and demonstrated a significant transition from the earlier periods, specifically the Renaissance and Medieval (Buci-Glucksmann). In addition, this period has also popularized the responsibility and relationship of an individual to the state. The Scientific Revolution has played a key role in the developments which became popular during the Industrial Revolution (Friedell).

Late Modern Era

The most significant among the changes which became evident during the 18th and 19th century were those that are related to the introduction of various technologies for the purpose of modernizing production system and the alteration of manual labour. Specific changes which were evident during this time include the introduction of new machineries and equipments that have altered processes in different areas, such as mining, farming, transportation, and manufacturing. In addition, it has also resulted into the introduction of new formulas that have resulted into the production of new materials used in various industries. There were also significant changes that were seen in the field of military, communication, and commerce. It is believed that the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution can be attributed to the commitment of the people from Britain towards pursuing ethics at work, development of technology, and emphasis on progress. During this period, it is also important to note that power was no longer concentrated to those who are from the noble class. Rather, it has also been distributed to the middle-class member of the society and businessmen (Hudson, 138-44).

There were great societal transformations that were highlighted during this period, showing improvements from the previous. For instance, some of the most notable changes include a more progressive and technological approach towards carrying-out business activities. In addition, it has also resulted into the changes in the field of politics and governance. From the U.S., these transformations have also reached France and resulted into a democratic form of governance to put an end to feudalism (Smith).

Other things that have significantly been altered during this period include health, hygiene, food production, transportation, and healthcare, as they were all significantly improved compared to the situation from the previous period. There were also laws promulgated in order to regulate child labour during that time. This was a dynamic social change advocated at that time and has also lead into the resolution of problems associated to famine. Taken collectively, the changes that have been noted during this period have resulted into positive changes that led into better living standards among the Europeans (Mumford).

Modernisation was perhaps one of the most significant contributions of the Industrial Revolution, including the rise of Marxism to respond to capitalism and the improvement in the field of human rights. In addition, it has also resulted into the promulgation of a multitude of useful reforms in labour that have specifically benefited those who used to be oppressed -- the women and children (Gaskell 202). The greatest benefit that is has contributed for women are that they were no longer confined to being inside their homes, but they were provided with employment opportunities outside the traditional (Burnette). In sum, this era has resulted into the improvements in the quality of living through the transformations it brought.

Before the modern era emerged, the Machine Age was able to deliver sophistication to the society, which was previously assumed as being impossible. However, even if this period was said to be able to deliver a number of innovations that have been useful for the society in general, it was also equated into what has been called as "negative capability" basically because of the wrong usage of the innovations that have emerged (Keats). There were many fears which accompanied the developments during this era, such as the fear for nuclear weaponry because of the development of atomic bombs (no author) and have been further exacerbated by the development of new media, including that of the television and radio.

The developments in culture that emerged during the Machine Age were credited to the outcomes of previous historical eras. The autonomy that has developed during the 18th and 19th centuries was able to lead into the emergence of nationalist tendencies, which specifically became evident during the World War I and II (Clare). This has also lead into having widened access to valuable resources as they were seized during such wars.

Although advancements in science were prominent during the Industrial Period, it was concentrated on technology and pragmatic applications that have resulted into the ease of carrying out of task. During the Machine Age, however, more improvements in science were noted, specifically with regards to making different products, such as computers and vehicles, more sophisticated (Vaclav 88). Although improvements in areas such as chemicals and electronics can be largely attributed to the Industrial Revolution, it cannot be denied that in general, these improvements would not be brought into a higher degree of usefulness if not for the contributions which were brought by the Machine Age.

The Machine Age was highly credited for the contemporary culture that has been prominent in Western Civilization. The consequences of the wars were able to create a huge impact on the society, including the fear that it might lead into another world war, especially when the Cold War broke during the 20th century (Ember). There were also significant changes in the global economic condition, such as during the occurence of the Great Depression, with effects which were felt on a large scale. Other outcomes that have changed the cultural paradigm in the Machine Age include the continuous improvement in communication technology, including the prominence of the internet, updating of assembly lines, and improved mass production. In addition, the home appliance and airline industry were also significant improved during this time. There were also significant changes that can be traced in the field of advertising.

3.1.2. Cultural environment -- Conclusion

(a total of 600 words is required. Therefore please add 250 words to the following uncompleted conclusion. Please elaborate this Green portion into the final conclusion.)

The modern European world had a more rational trajectory. Religion continued to play a crucial cultural role in the lives of people, but there was more space for thought that eventually ushered in the radical transformation of the Industrial Revolution. Urbanisation became the trajectory for human society, replacing the previous foundation of agrarian existence. Capitalism became the new economic form. Fuelled by capitalism and fresh possibilities, Europe expanded through exploration and colonialism, seeking new products and markets. This was enhanced by the Industrial Revolution, which altered the way in which products were made and society was organised. From the Renaissance to the Industrial Age, the modern world in which we still live was born. The Renaissance revived the learning and humanism of the classical world. Science, math, and engineering became more important even as art and literature also flourished. Europe, which began colonising the world, also began to turn away from the Catholic Church. Protestantism began to rise, bringing about a different relationship between the individual and religion, even as other people turned away from religion as the driving force of their lives.

As science became more and more important, people began to be able to create machines that would have been unimaginable just a generation before. The development of steam power helped create almost every other form of machine and human and animal labour was mostly displaced. Production rose, cities grew, the world became something undreamed of -- including the undreamed-of horror of pollution and climate change. These scientific advancements would in turn lead to the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century, which would fundamentally change the entire world. It would shift labour and production not only from humans and animals to machines and loosen the grip of tradition across all cultures, but would as well allow for further changes in politics, art, and the very philosophical concepts about the human condition. People would begin to live longer and have experiences in the cities that were a direct result of the Industrial Revolution, a much wider horizon than those in any previous society would have had the possibility even to imagine.

The cultural environment from the Renaissance through the Machine Age was varied and dynamic. Ultimately, perhaps the greatest shift that took place was the growth of the individual, as this had profound implications on scientific, economic, and artistic developments. Indeed, it fuelled dominant values that have held importance up through the present moment -- values such as progress and rational thought. Suddenly, people who previously held little to no autonomy were endowed with the power to shape their fate and make a name for them.

As people united around commonly held beliefs and responded to their environment, cultural identities formed. Unfortunately, this did contribute to a sense of cultural chauvinism, the vestiges of which manifest through the present moment. While the rise of rational thought and individual progress contributed productively in a number of different ways, it is nonetheless important to consider the cultural conflicts that have also surfaced as a result of different cultures clashing over cultural values relating to technology, economic policy, or civil rights. To this end, one must acknowledge the injustice inflicted upon foreign cultures through the rise of colonialism and the foreign conquests that took place through ventures such as the European trading companies. Cultural expansion is in many ways inextricably linked with cultural conquest, and it is a legacy of the development of global travel that cultural conflicts became commonplace. Still, tremendous advancements have been made toward accepting cultural environments and one of the great tasks for future generations is promoting acceptance of diverse cultures.

3.2 Scientific Environment

That which is now called natural philosophy, embracing the whole circle of science, of which astronomy occupies the chief place, is the study of the works of God, and of the power and wisdom of God in his works, and is the true theology.

-- Thomas Paine

3.2.0. Introduction

The scientific environment of each historical period facilitates problem-solving, decision making, and development of the right skills and tools to ensure the completion of projects. The study of the scientific environment of a historical period is intricate; it includes many areas of knowledge that would not be strictly scientific by today's standards. However, science is essentially the growth of knowledge about the world and the ways it functions and relates to our needs and requirements. More broadly speaking, science is also knowledge about the meaning of life and reality, as well as insights that are gleaned about the principles that lie behind or "inform" nature and the universe. The history of science in this current study, therefore, begins not with contemporary scientific discoveries and methods, but with the search for an understanding of nature and human reality that began with knowledge and was accumulated by modern cultures.

The extent of the importance and influence of scientific knowledge and the way that it has influenced contemporary culture and perceptions of reality are not always immediately evident. We may not think of ourselves as living in a world defined by science. Science seems to be more akin to aspects such as space exploration, chemistry experiments, and medical research, rather than to our everyday lives and reality. However, a comparison of previous ages to the contemporary age allows for a more complete understanding of the ways in which our life is defined by science. Even if we do not understand how something works, we assume that there is a rational, scientific explanation for it. For most of human history people did not rely on scientific or mathematical explanations for the world around them, but on religion or folk traditions. They had not yet amassed the knowledge that we possess, but their early intuitions and attempts to understand nature and the universe were very often the precursors to the development of what is called contemporary science. Modern era was an age of reason and common sense, and individuals tried to search for their identity and the meaning of natural world. For the first time in human history, religion is not the only governing factor for acquiring knowledge. People tended to improve their standard of living, improve the built environment by challenging the religion, asking questions, conducting experiments. All these led to great discoveries and inventions.