Historical development of expertise in project management and construction

History Of the Areas of Expertise and Their

Application To Project Activities

History with its flickering lamp stumbles along the trail of the past, trying to reconstruct its scenes, to revive its echoes, and kindle with pale gleams the passion of former days.

Winston Churchill

The historical review conducted in chapter 2 can now be presented and analysed. This chapter will consider and summarise the data given there. The data will be investigated by obtaining significant results concerning development within the historical periods addressed by this research study. The same guiding categories will be utilised to arrange the analysis, namely:

Cultural environment

Scientific environment

Economic environment

General management

Architectural principles

Construction technology

The Master builder tradition

Analysis of project activities

In practice, these items are closely interwoven and interact to form the field of project management as a whole; they are separated in this work only for ease of presentation and analysis. The analytical presentation in this chapter will be used to develop the interpretive synthesis of the history of modern project management in the next chapter. Through a careful study of events and practices related to these research categories, the discussion will trace circumstances at different historical periods that affected the development of the areas of expertise and their application to project activities. As a continuation of the previous chapters, the goals are to recapitulate the historical data and extend the clarity and significance of that information. By understanding the historical development of the areas of expertise and their application to project activities in this way, the history of the modern project management will be detailed and unfolded.

Science and technology have advanced over the centuries, as have cultural environments, economic developments, and management skills. It is these types of changes that this research attempts to discuss and synthesise using historical examples of building projects. The goal of this work is to examine how historical circumstances have influenced architectural principles, construction technology, and professional tradition down through the various historical periods of modern Western history. Undoubtedly, building construction is a dynamic field for historical research. Much can be learned about social organisation, engineering, and technology, as well as aesthetics, through investigating the history of important buildings. Therefore, the chapter will end with an analytical summary of the contribution of these buildings and will look forward to the next chapter's synthesis of the findings.

3.1 Cultural Environment

Quality is the result of a carefully constructed cultural environment.

It has to be the fabric of the organisation, not part of the fabric.

-- Philip B. Crosby

3.1.0. Introduction

Project activities are performed within a particular historical, political, and social context. The study of the cultural environment of a historical period in modern Western history is essentially the study of the past, usually from written sources. In other words, it is the study of recorded cultural history. Archaeology, reinforced by written records, provides us with extremely important indications of the varied cultures and their particular cultural practices. However, when we speak of cultural history, we refer to something more complex, intricate, and interrelated than just recorded facts and data.

What is understood by culture and, more specifically, cultural history? The cultural history of a people records the past in terms of the broad interaction of the various aspects of that society. These can include how historical, political, and social milieu and other variables intersecting to create the unique mix of perception. Cultural history, therefore, refers to the fabric of that particular society. In essence, the study of cultural history refers to the unique and distinctive identity and quality that the civilisation or group under discussion has built up. This can also include the study of aspects such as rituals, belief systems, as well as class and social stratification that constitute the nature of that society. Cultural historians have emphasised that every society or civilisation has its own shape, purpose, and meaning. Identity is expressed in activities, arts, and institutions of learning.

However, while it is important to consider each culture in relation to its own particular identity and context, it is equally important to consider the effects of that culture on other cultures. When we study the culture of each historical period, we tend to look at each different society as if it were essentially autonomous: there was the Renaissance, then the Scientific Revolution, then the Industrial Revolution, and so forth. However, while there are of course core practices, habits, and beliefs that distinguish each society, there are many key connections with other cultures as well. Societies share and borrow from each other all the time; indeed, one might argue that the level of "borrowing" from one culture to the next is at the level of grand larceny.

When one thinks about it, there is every reason for societies to borrow from each other in the same way that one generation learns from its predecessor and passes on what it has learned. Some of what different societies passed along to each other took the form of technological advancements -- for example, Baroque builders took the technology of Renaissance builders and developed it into a uniquely Baroque style; Machine Age builders took the technology of the Industrial Revolution and developed it into a uniquely the Machine Age style

The following section will deal with various prominent modern cultures. It will examine them in terms of their own unique identities and their intersections with other cultures and cultural developments.

3.1.1 History of the Cultural Environment

Late Modern Era

The most significant among the changes which became evident during the 18th and 19th century were those that are related to the introduction of various technologies for the purpose of modernizing production system and the alteration of manual labour. Specific changes which were evident during this time include the introduction of new machineries and equipments that have altered processes in different areas, such as mining, farming, transportation, and manufacturing. In addition, it has also resulted into the introduction of new formulas that have resulted into the production of new materials used in various industries. There were also significant changes that were seen in the field of military, communication, and commerce. It is believed that the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution can be attributed to the commitment of the people from Britain towards pursuing ethics at work, development of technology, and emphasis on progress. During this period, it is also important to note that power was no longer concentrated to those who are from the noble class. Rather, it has also been distributed to the middle-class member of the society and businessmen (Hudson, 138-44).

There were great societal transformations that were highlighted during this period, showing improvements from the previous. For instance, some of the most notable changes include a more progressive and technological approach towards carrying-out business activities. In addition, it has also resulted into the changes in the field of politics and governance. From the U.S., these transformations have also reached France and resulted into a democratic form of governance to put an end to feudalism (Smith).

Other things that have significantly been altered during this period include health, hygiene, food production, transportation, and healthcare, as they were all significantly improved compared to the situation from the previous period. There were also laws promulgated in order to regulate child labour during that time. This was a dynamic social change advocated at that time and has also lead into the resolution of problems associated to famine. Taken collectively, the changes that have been noted during this period have resulted into positive changes that led into better living standards among the Europeans (Mumford).

Modernisation was perhaps one of the most significant contributions of the Industrial Revolution, including the rise of Marxism to respond to capitalism and the improvement in the field of human rights. In addition, it has also resulted into the promulgation of a multitude of useful reforms in labour that have specifically benefited those who used to be oppressed -- the women and children (Gaskell 202). The greatest benefit that is has contributed for women are that they were no longer confined to being inside their homes, but they were provided with employment opportunities outside the traditional (Burnette). In sum, this era has resulted into the improvements in the quality of living through the transformations it brought.

Before the modern era emerged, the Machine Age was able to deliver sophistication to the society, which was previously assumed as being impossible. However, even if this period was said to be able to deliver a number of innovations that have been useful for the society in general, it was also equated into what has been called as "negative capability" basically because of the wrong usage of the innovations that have emerged (Keats). There were many fears which accompanied the developments during this era, such as the fear for nuclear weaponry because of the development of atomic bombs (no author) and have been further exacerbated by the development of new media, including that of the television and radio.

The developments in culture that emerged during the Machine Age were credited to the outcomes of previous historical eras. The autonomy that has developed during the 18th and 19th centuries was able to lead into the emergence of nationalist tendencies, which specifically became evident during the World War I and II (Clare). This has also lead into having widened access to valuable resources as they were seized during such wars.

Although advancements in science were prominent during the Industrial Period, it was concentrated on technology and pragmatic applications that have resulted into the ease of carrying out of task. During the Machine Age, however, more improvements in science were noted, specifically with regards to making different products, such as computers and vehicles, more sophisticated (Vaclav 88). Although improvements in areas such as chemicals and electronics can be largely attributed to the Industrial Revolution, it cannot be denied that in general, these improvements would not be brought into a higher degree of usefulness if not for the contributions which were brought by the Machine Age.

The Machine Age was highly credited for the contemporary culture that has been prominent in Western Civilization. The consequences of the wars were able to create a huge impact on the society, including the fear that it might lead into another world war, especially when the Cold War broke during the 20th century (Ember). There were also significant changes in the global economic condition, such as during the occurence of the Great Depression, with effects which were felt on a large scale. Other outcomes that have changed the cultural paradigm in the Machine Age include the continuous improvement in communication technology, including the prominence of the internet, updating of assembly lines, and improved mass production. In addition, the home appliance and airline industry were also significant improved during this time. There were also significant changes that can be traced in the field of advertising.

3.1.2. Cultural environment -- Conclusion

(a total of 600 words is required. Therefore please add 250 words to the following uncompleted conclusion. Please elaborate this Green portion into the final conclusion.)

The modern European world had a more rational trajectory. Religion continued to play a crucial cultural role in the lives of people, but there was more space for thought that eventually ushered in the radical transformation of the Industrial Revolution. Urbanisation became the trajectory for human society, replacing the previous foundation of agrarian existence. Capitalism became the new economic form. Fuelled by capitalism and fresh possibilities, Europe expanded through exploration and colonialism, seeking new products and markets. This was enhanced by the Industrial Revolution, which altered the way in which products were made and society was organised. From the Renaissance to the Industrial Age, the modern world in which we still live was born. The Renaissance revived the learning and humanism of the classical world. Science, math, and engineering became more important even as art and literature also flourished. Europe, which began colonising the world, also began to turn away from the Catholic Church. Protestantism began to rise, bringing about a different relationship between the individual and religion, even as other people turned away from religion as the driving force of their lives.

As science became more and more important, people began to be able to create machines that would have been unimaginable just a generation before. The development of steam power helped create almost every other form of machine and human and animal labour was mostly displaced. Production rose, cities grew, the world became something undreamed of -- including the undreamed-of horror of pollution and climate change. These scientific advancements would in turn lead to the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century, which would fundamentally change the entire world. It would shift labour and production not only from humans and animals to machines and loosen the grip of tradition across all cultures, but would as well allow for further changes in politics, art, and the very philosophical concepts about the human condition. People would begin to live longer and have experiences in the cities that were a direct result of the Industrial Revolution, a much wider horizon than those in any previous society would have had the possibility even to imagine.

The cultural environment from the Renaissance through the Machine Age was varied and dynamic. Ultimately, perhaps the greatest shift that took place was the growth of the individual, as this had profound implications on scientific, economic, and artistic developments. Indeed, it fuelled dominant values that have held importance up through the present moment -- values such as progress and rational thought. Suddenly, people who previously held little to no autonomy were endowed with the power to shape their fate and make a name for them.

As people united around commonly held beliefs and responded to their environment, cultural identities formed. Unfortunately, this did contribute to a sense of cultural chauvinism, the vestiges of which manifest through the present moment. While the rise of rational thought and individual progress contributed productively in a number of different ways, it is nonetheless important to consider the cultural conflicts that have also surfaced as a result of different cultures clashing over cultural values relating to technology, economic policy, or civil rights. To this end, one must acknowledge the injustice inflicted upon foreign cultures through the rise of colonialism and the foreign conquests that took place through ventures such as the European trading companies. Cultural expansion is in many ways inextricably linked with cultural conquest, and it is a legacy of the development of global travel that cultural conflicts became commonplace. Still, tremendous advancements have been made toward accepting cultural environments and one of the great tasks for future generations is promoting acceptance of diverse cultures.

3.2 Scientific Environment

That which is now called natural philosophy, embracing the whole circle of science, of which astronomy occupies the chief place, is the study of the works of God, and of the power and wisdom of God in his works, and is the true theology.

-- Thomas Paine

3.2.0. Introduction

The scientific environment of each historical period facilitates problem-solving, decision making, and development of the right skills and tools to ensure the completion of projects. The study of the scientific environment of a historical period is intricate; it includes many areas of knowledge that would not be strictly scientific by today's standards. However, science is essentially the growth of knowledge about the world and the ways it functions and relates to our needs and requirements. More broadly speaking, science is also knowledge about the meaning of life and reality, as well as insights that are gleaned about the principles that lie behind or "inform" nature and the universe. The history of science in this current study, therefore, begins not with contemporary scientific discoveries and methods, but with the search for an understanding of nature and human reality that began with knowledge and was accumulated by modern cultures.

The extent of the importance and influence of scientific knowledge and the way that it has influenced contemporary culture and perceptions of reality are not always immediately evident. We may not think of ourselves as living in a world defined by science. Science seems to be more akin to aspects such as space exploration, chemistry experiments, and medical research, rather than to our everyday lives and reality. However, a comparison of previous ages to the contemporary age allows for a more complete understanding of the ways in which our life is defined by science. Even if we do not understand how something works, we assume that there is a rational, scientific explanation for it. For most of human history people did not rely on scientific or mathematical explanations for the world around them, but on religion or folk traditions. They had not yet amassed the knowledge that we possess, but their early intuitions and attempts to understand nature and the universe were very often the precursors to the development of what is called contemporary science. Modern era was an age of reason and common sense, and individuals tried to search for their identity and the meaning of natural world. For the first time in human history, religion is not the only governing factor for acquiring knowledge. People tended to improve their standard of living, improve the built environment by challenging the religion, asking questions, conducting experiments. All these led to great discoveries and inventions.

An important aspect to note in the history of science is that scientific knowledge did not increase steadily and unilaterally over time. Some eras saw great leaps in scientific knowledge, while others witnessed only small advances; still other eras saw regression. In some historical periods, science has been viewed as the enemy of religion or even of the state. In others, it has been an arm of the state. While science is about the search for truth, it is also directly related to the history and the culture of which it is a part. The interaction between the development of science and its cultural context is a vital part of understanding the progress of this form of knowledge in history. This section examines the role and development of science in the modern societies.

3.2.1 History of Scientific Environment

Early Modern Era

It is said the greatest among the achievements during the Renaissance period is the scientific method, and not any single theory of discovery (Brotton). According to the scientific method, to be able to gain an understanding of true causes and natural laws, there is a need to be engaged in the use of observable scientific evidences. Because of the scientific method, different developments were noted in various fields of science, such as in physics, astronomy, and biology. The discoveries during this period have been the foundation of many of the scientific developments which were noted in the succeeding periods. There were many textual works completed during this time, which became very useful after the Renaissance as it served as the foundation of scientific knowledge.

Humanism has been popular during this period, although it cannot be denied that religious philosophies were still apparent. The humanistic approach that has gained prominence during this period has been influential in shaping the intellectual landscape. However, although humanism has been helpful in the development of some other fields, it has also been asserted that it has detracted serious disciplines, such as the field of mathematics. Humanism has also merged with religious philosophies, such as the reconciliation of the teaching of Christianity and humanism under Pope Pius II (Loffler 538-42).

Some of the scientific advancements that became evident during the Renaissance include the delivery of lectures of Georg Purbach in the University of Vienna regarding astronomy. The lectures made by Purbach were collated by one of his students, Regiomontanus, and was later published in what was called Theoricae novae planetarum. This has provided advancements in the field of astronomy, and has replaced the old theorica in this discipline. In addition, the summary of Purbach on Almagest, a text written by Claudius Ptomely, is also one of the important written documents of the period. The Epitome of Almagest, has been accessed by many astronomers and provided valuable contributions in this fields of science (Shank).

The works of Nicolaus Copernicus is a reflection of the major development in science that has unfolded during the Renaissance. His most influential work is the De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium, which has been published a short time before his death. The most important contribution of this work is the presentation of a heliocentric view of the universe, while also having basis on the scientific calculations which have been discovered and introduced by Ptomely (Lawson 29).

Some of the most significant contributions of Galileo during the period include the promotion of knowledge for the sake of knowledge. His book, II Saggiatore validates experimental empiricism. In addition, contrary to what has been being taught by the Catholic Church, Galileo was also able to discover that the Earth is not the center of the universe. This finding has proven to be one of the most important revolutions in the field of astronomy, up to this point of time (Singer 217).

All previous learning became the foundation of scientific revolution. One of the most significant characteristics of this period is that there has been an increasing curiosity from people, and they have questioned truths which were previously known in the field of science and technology. There were different revolutionary ideas which became popular during this time, such as having a heliocentric view of astronomy and when bacteria have been seen under the microscope. If