Nanotechnology All Manufactured Products Are Made From

Nanotechnology

All manufactured products are made from atoms, with the properties of these products based on how atoms are put together. By rearranging coal atoms, diamonds are formed. Similarly, by rearranging the atoms in sand and adding some trace elements, electronic chips are developed. In time, it will be possible to more readily connect the fundamental building blocks of nature. The word "nanotechnology" is used to describe when the characteristic dimensions of any technology that is less than about 1,000 nanometers. The future will bring the production of new manufacturing processes that will allow companies to inexpensively build systems and products that are molecular in both size and precision. Any businesses, old and new, that are interested in, considering and/or already applying this advanced and still relatively unknown technology will have to do extensive research on the benefits and disadvantages and then, if wanting to proceed, develop a complete and thorough strategy of implementation if they wish to have higher chances of future success.

NT uses either top-down processes (lithography) to cut out or add material to a surface, or bottom-up processes in which NT materials self-assemble to create larger structures. Merkle from Xerox Corporation explains that this is a similar process that is done continually by trees. "Trees grow by taking energy from sunlight and nutrients from the soil to build themselves ... They only use what they need, arranging the atoms in complex internal patterns." Further, "trees also self-replicate: They produce seeds that build other trees. Precisely because it's a miracle of biology, lumber costs only a few dollars per pound." In other words, once there is self-replication, a company has a means for a manufacturing process that is intrinsically low cost (In Fouke 47).

Living systems also use self-assembly, adds Merkle (In Fouke ibid), who calls this "selective stickiness." If two molecular parts have complementary shapes and charge patterns, they will have the tendency to stick together to form a larger part. This will help in building "nanotools," which will construct other things. Molecular-scale positional devices will hold molecules in precise position and one-ten-millionth-scale robotic arms sweeping back and forth over a surface will add and withdraw atoms to build structures. This is comparable to constructing a car. First, use nanotools to build an assembler, or a minute, computer-controlled robot that can be programmed to build nearly anything. Then program the assemblers to replicate. Finally, build the product.

The time for "selective stickiness" is brief: A nanotool can move a molecule into position in a microsecond. With a million operations per second and a billion atoms per assembler, it would take approximately 20 minutes for an assembler to build a copy of itself -- or a billion assemblers in 20 hours. A car can be built in a few hours.

The basis of nanotechnology has grown out of several years of research, innovation and enhancements in a number of different fields of science, engineering and manufacturing. Computer circuits are becoming increasingly small and chemicals more complex. Biochemists regularly acquire more knowledge on how to study and control the molecular basis of organisms. Meanwhile, mechanical engineers are continually improving their precision of design and production.

In 1959, Nobel laureate and Caltech physicist Richard Feynman suggested that it should be possible to build machines small enough to manipulate and control things on a small scale. His talk, "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," is widely considered to be the foreshadowing of nanotechnology. Among other things, he predicted that information could be stored with amazing density. Despite the fact that the power of computers was just being recognized, he had the foresight to see this as the future:

... I do know that computing machines are very large; they fill rooms. Why can't we make them very small, make them of little wires, little elements- -- and by little, I mean little. For instance, the wires should be 10 or 100 atoms in diameter, and the circuits should be a few thousand angstroms across. Everybody who has analyzed the logical theory of computers has come to the conclusion that the possibilities of computers are very interesting- -- if they could be made to be more complicated by several orders of magnitude.

He could even imagine how this would be possible:

Up to now, we have been content to dig in the ground to find minerals. We heat them and we do things on a large scale with them, and we hope to get a pure substance with just so much impurity, and so on. But we must always accept some atomic arrangement that nature gives us. We haven't got anything, say, with a 'checkerboard' arrangement, with the impurity atoms exactly arranged 1,000 angstroms apart, or in some other particular pattern. What could we do with layered structures with just the right layers? What would the properties of materials be if we could really arrange the atoms the way we want them?

Another Nobel physicist, Phillip W. Anderson, in 1972 articulated the concept of "emergent" properties in complex systems in "More is Different" (Scientific American ix). He noted that the behavior of large and complex aggregations of elementary particles cannot be understood as a simple extrapolation of properties of a few particles. "Instead, at each level of complexity, entirely new properties appear, and the understanding of the new behaviors requires research which I think is as fundamental in its nature as any other."

In 1981, Eric Drexler of MIT began exploring Feynman's vision by describing the physical principles of molecular manufacturing systems in a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, where he envisioned nanomachines making products with atomic precision and introducing what would become molecular manufacturing. He quickly realized that molecular machines could control the chemical manufacture of complex products, including additional manufacturing systems with very powerful technology. "Molecular assemblages of atoms can act as solid objects, occupying space and holding a definite shape. Thus, they can act as structural members and moving parts." In this same year, the scanning tunneling microscope was invented by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM's Zurich Research Labs provided the first direct images of individual atoms.

In 1986, Drexler introduced the term "nanotechnology" in his book Engines of Creation. Norio Taniguchi, in Japan, had used the word in the mid-1970s to describe precision micromachining. His definition remains today: "Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule." In 1992, Drexler's Nanosystems, technically outlined a way to manufacture extremely high-performance machines out of molecular carbon lattice, or "diamondoid."

In 1990, IBM painstakingly positioned 35 xenon atoms to spell the business' 3-letter name, which made it the world's tiniest company logo. Then Cornell University scientists produced a non-visible "nanoguitar," which cannot be seen by the naked eye. The strings, only a few atoms across, could be "plucked" by laser beams to play 17 octaves above those made by a typical guitar that exceed human hearing capability. Hewlett-Packard then began in 1999 to assemble circuits one molecule thick. The development of these circuits was announced in an essay in the magazine Science on July 16, 1999.

Research into nanotechnology had also long been conducted in the biology field. Erwin Schr ger, a 1933 Nobel Prize physicist who discovered new forms of atomic energy in 1945 questioned: "What is Life?" His concern was not philosophical, but rather how physics and chemistry could account for the events in space and time within the spatial boundary of a living organism (Crandall 18). He looked into the materiality of cellular life, speculating that the theorized gene was able to reproduce itself and use a code to determine the organism's development. Schr ger thus foresaw the key characteristic of DNA -- its ability to define a set of instructions for the material construction of living forms.

At the same time, John von Neumann published his report on the EDVAC that detailed the basic constructs of the modern computer. Based on the evident similarities between organic systems and logical computation, mathematicians responsible for designing the first electronic computers began studying the information-processing capabilities of both living creatures and engineered automata (Crandall 20-22).

Scientists envisioned that nanotechnology would benefit everything from microprocessing and lab work to agriculture and medicine. If these nanoscience areas were advanced by nanotechnology, society would benefit from the commercial impact in manufacturing and worldwide competitive advantage. This vision for the future was enhanced under President Clinton's administration, with the National Science Foundation creating a network of institutions researching the field. In 2001, over 30 nanotechnology research centers were started in the U.S. Less than ten existed in 1999. In other countries, total funding for nanotechnology grew from $316 million in 1997 to about $835 million 2000 (Scientific American.)

Since then, increasing uses have been hypothesized for the development and application of nanotechnology. Possible applications include quantum computers to long-term life preservation. These include:

Medicine: Nanotechnology could eradicate disease. Molecule-sized "nanobots" could be programmed to enter a body's cells and fight viruses. With a genetic disease, the nanobots would burrow into your DNA and repair the defective gene.

Power Storage: Nanotechnology could help build smaller and more efficient fuel cells to cleanly store energy.

New materials: By bonding a molecule with a nanoparticle, or single atom, scientists could create tubular fibers. When these fibers are threaded together and crystallized, they could act as metal, but 100 times stronger and four times lighter than steel.

Environment: Nanobots could manipulate the atoms in an oil spill and make it harmless. It could also purify the air in homes and office buildings.

Energy: Atoms bonded together could create a machine that converts water to hydrogen with the use of sunlight.

Military: Advanced forms of weaponry, electronic tracking devices.

NASA space exploration: A "swarm," active materials made up of several machines, could develop new materials that among other things would make space suits much more effective and greatly improve the safety of aerospace vehicles. It could also signficantly reduce the weight of rockets for boosting payloads into space.

Applications that may appear within the next decade include: targeted drug delivery enabling lower dosage and reduced side effects; anti-corrosion coatings, tougher and harder cutting tools; polymer electronics; flat-panel electronic displays; longer lasting medical implants and artificially created organs; retinal implants; and medical sensors to monitor patients at home.

Merkle (49) believes that it will be possible to do some molecular manufacturing by 2010 to 2020. He predicts a major shift in economic sectors. Companies that primarily manufacture products in a traditional manner may be in a difficult position compared to those specializing in design of new forms of development.

Presently, nano research and applications have already begun at companies worldwide, primarily with the rapid decrease in the size of electronic chips. Firms such as IBM and Hewlett-Packard have substantial nano programs. Quantum Dot Corporation has used semiconductor quantum dots as labels in biological experiments, drug-discovery research and diagnostic tests. Nanophase Technologies, a publicly traded company, produces nano-size zinc oxide particles for use in sunscreen. It makes the white-colored cream transparent, because the tiny particles do not scatter visible light (Scientific American 11).

It must be noted, however, that the definition of the word "nano" varies. Some of nanotechnology does not deal with structures of mirocron scale or millionths of a meter, but 1,000 times larger. Also, nanotechnology is not always technology per se. It involves basic research on structures having at least one dimension of about one to several hundred nanometers. In fact, nanotechnology has been existing for some time: The nano-size carbon black particles in tires goes back a century and vaccine, which consists of one or more nanoscale proteins, extends back in time as well.

For example, for the next 20 or so years, the first generation of micromachines, called microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are expected to find wide commercial application (Kaku 269) MEMS are miniature sensors and motors about the size of dust particles. Although far from molecular machines, MEMS are already used in the marketplace and created a $3.2 billion industry by the year 2000 that is expected to exceed $15 billion over the next couple of decades. Instead of etching millions of transistors, scientists are now etching tiny sensors and motors onto silicon wafers. Also, minute X-ray beams are being used to etch polymers that can be electroplated to create metallic molds.

Sales of products incorporating nanotechnology will total $2.6 trillion in 10 years, approximately one-sixth of gross manufacturing output in 2014, greatly exceeding previous estimates (Lux). Nano-enhanced products will account for 50% of all electronics and information technology products and 16% of all healthcare products by 2014. Within a decade, 11% of total manufacturing jobs worldwide will involve nano-enhanced products. The National Science Foundation had previously predicted that nanotechnology would contribute $1 trillion to the global economy by 2015. The beginnings of the technology should bring improvements across a wide range of industry categories including healthcare, water purification, materials, and information technology. Nanotechnology's initial deployments in products ranging from automobiles to pharmaceuticals highlight its potential to improve consumer goods regardless of sector.

In addition, a motion detector about the size of a human hair is being used in air bags. It can detect sudden decelerations in the automobile. Denso Corporation of Toyota has made a micro-engine, which is .7 millimeter in size and can propel a micro-car at two inches per second. In the long run, MEMS could dramatically reduce the current cost of $20,000 laboratory spectrometers to $10; create a complete laboratory-on-a-chip that can provide full medical diagnostics and chemical analysis; and create micro-devices that can threat blood vessels driven by a micro-car (Kaku 270).

Today, Levi's Dockers and Gap khakis employ nano-fibers, which bind to the cotton fibers in the fabric to create an invisible barrier that protects slacks from the depredations of spilled red wine or coffee. IBM has designed a nanocomponent known as GMR, which has dramatically improved memory performance. Chevrolet replaced the "rub strip" -- the molding that protects car doors from other car doors -- on the Impala with a nanocomposite version. Eastman Kodak has begun marketing a digital camera whose viewscreen includes a nanocomponent (Varchaver).

General Motor's nanocomposites embody a unique combination of strength and flexibility. The company altered the molecules of clay so that it clings to oil, which it would not otherwise do. It adopted nanocomposites for the trim on the Impala and Hummer and used 660,000 pounds of the clay last year. GM will expand its use little by little in the next few years. The company will be looking to move into the interior of the vehicle because there are some weight savings and some mass-saving opportunities. Eventually it hopes to have exterior panels made from these materials (Varchaver).

General Electric CEO Jeff Immelt has cited nanotech, along with diagnostic medicine and renewable energy, as "three big trends we're investing in for the future." The company has built an R& D. staff of nearly 50 scientists and engineers working full-time on nanotech. In the end of 2003, GE began selling plastic, used in automobiles, with nanofillers that allow paint to bind more readily to it. The chemists are also studying myriad other technologies with potential applications throughout the company (Varchaver).

It is not only the Fortune 500 who are getting involved. There are more and more startups and venture capitals that are arising. However, the concern is that so many new businesses fail each year.

In their article "Investing in Technology," Paull et. al note the growth that has occurred in these smaller companies. They compare the nanotechnology industry with the previous biotechnology "revolution." They note that the congruence of recombinant DNA technology and venture capitals in the 1970s created an entirely new industry as well as significantly growing technology patents and the emergence of completely different types of products such as Humulin, Eli Lilly's recombinant insulin. Similarly, with nanotechnology, the development of scanning probe microscopes has allowed researchers to visualize and manipulate 100nm matter in ways never previously possible. This has led to considerable patent growth in materials science, patent licensing in major corporations and an array of nanotechnology products under development such as semiconducting quantum dots and nanowire sensors that detect single molecule analytes.

Further, just as in biotechnology, intellectual property is critical. Scientific paper journals began to rise in the mid-1990s, with 500 nano applications in 1998 and 1,300 in 2000. Another parallel with biotechnology is the chronic shortage of people experienced in commercializing nanotechnology. According to the National Science Foundation, 40,0000 United States scientists have skills to work in nanotechnology. However, to support the NSF's estimated $1 trillion nanotechnology industry by 2015, 800,000 American workers, or 40% of those worldwide, will be required. This will put a large strain on companies to recruit and hire qualified workers, especially given the small number of individuals trained in the new technology and the worldwide competition for top candidates.

The earliest companies in the field are those that make hardware tools and software programs to characterize, measure and work at nanoscale. Paull et. al note: "From an investment perspective, hardware like atomic force microscopes and resonance controllers that are being marketed for use in the biological or material sciences are a capital-intensive business with long sales cycles." To the contrary, most venture capital investors prefer companies with business models that are easily scalable with large potential margins. A large percentage of the nanotechnology investments and research are presently going into nanobiotechnology, or the teaming of nanotechnology with biotechnology -- mostly diagnostics and drug discovery.

However, other industries are also considering the benefits of adding nanotechnology. Major oil companies are spending millions of dollars trying to find a catalyst for direct conversion of methane to methanol, and some small companies are focusing specifically on this problem. Roy Periana, a chemist at the University of Southern California who used to work for a small company called Catalytica, says: "We have some leads, and we're coupling that with knowledge of how previous systems have worked. And right now, it's fair to say that this is a race. The fundamentals are laid down, and it's a matter of who will get there first. The question on everyone's mind now is who will find the right catalyst and when, and what will it be. It's not even a question of 'if.'"

He adds: "Forget chemistry. This is a perfect application for nanotechnology. First build a universal assembler and disassembler. Use the disassembler to take the methane apart, then use the assembler to put the atoms back together, with one extra oxygen atom. Presto, you've got methanol" (Burkhead).

Investment in nanotechnology is increasing rapidly worldwide. It is a subject that attracts large and small countries. More than 30 countries have nanotechnology activities and plans. As well as the major players, there are growing programs in Singapore, Russia and the Ukraine. In Mexico there are 20 research groups working independently. Korea, already a world player in electronics, has an ambitious 10-year program to attain a world-class position in nanotechnology. The Japanese government committed itself to nanotechnology spending of some 75 billion yen, around £400 million in 2002. Nanotechnology is one of four strategic platforms of Japan's second basic plan for science and technology (Taylor).

The European Commission (EC) has also recognized the growing importance of nanotechnology. Out of a total proposed funding for FP6 of D17.5 billion from 2002 to 2006, D1.3 billion would be devoted to a priority thematic area of research on nanotechnology and nanoscience, knowledge-based multifunctional materials and new production processes and devices.

What about corporations who are presently beginning to invest, planning to invest in the future or are considering going into nanotechnology, but have not yet made a decision? Companies that are looking at incorporating nanotechnology should adopt strategies to avoid being blindsided by nanotechnology development. Industry can cooperate with governmental institutions, educational institutions, professional societies and standards organizations to (a) focus research priorities appropriately and (b) insure the adequate training of scientists, engineers, and technologists. Charting a route from a present technology base to the future capabilities of molecular manufacturing involves a complex interplay of technical feasibility, funding, early products, and long-term goals.

Although global corporations are investing heavily in nanotechnology development, significantly increasing their commitment in money, people and partnerships, most fail to tie these activities to an explicit strategy or coordinate their efforts across the company. This leaves their investments at risk of being wasted. For example, Toshiba could see its $1.8 billion in annual flash memory sales displaced by nano-enabled alternatives, and nano-fabric treatments could erode the 29% of revenue that Procter & Gamble earns from fabric and home care products (Nordan).

To determine how companies presently organize their nanotechnology initiatives, Lux Research conducted in-depth, confidential interviews with executives accountable for nanotechnology at 33 global corporations with more than $5 billion in annual revenue. The median company represented recorded sales of $30 billion last year and employs 46,000 people. Interviewees were balanced across three sectors impacted by nanotechnology -- manufacturing and materials, electronics and IT, and healthcare and life sciences -- as well as across North America, Asia, and Europe.

"Large companies have not converged on any particular model for organizing and governing their nanotechnology initiatives," said Lux Vice President of Research Matthew Nordan:

The diverse approaches that we found show no correlation with industry, region, company size, years of experience in working at the nanoscale, or the presence or absence of an explicit nanotechnology strategy. Most companies' efforts reflect awkwardness in grappling with technology innovations that don't mesh well with their existing organizations rather than carefully crafted initiatives.

The Lux report found that 42% of represented companies have centralized nanotechnology programs, but an equal share pursues decentralized activity with no coordination. At 45% of companies, the R& D. organization "owns" nanotech; ownership varies widely across the rest. Barely half of interviewees' firms have a stated nanotech strategy. When a strategy does exist, it is frequently a platitude like "survey the field and move quickly." Fewer than half of interviewees rate their companies' current approaches to nanotech as "very effective."

Big investments are at risk, conclude Lux researchers. The median corporation represented has 55 people working on nanotechnology, allocated $33 million in R& D. funding this year to research at the nanoscale, and partners with universities, startups, and public sector agencies on multiple nanotech projects. Interviewees expect double-digit increases on each front through 2006. Pharmaceutical companies are least likely to have an explicit nanotechnology strategy; they also invest the lowest level of people and funding compared with other sectors. Asian companies across industries show the highest levels of staffing, funding, and executive sponsorship for nanotech.

Lux Research advises that nanotechnology is too diverse for companies to take any single approach to exploiting it. Instead, large firms should regularly screen the universe of relevant opportunities arising from nanotechnology and match each with an appropriate organization and set of management tactics. The key is to segment nanotechnology opportunities on two axes, suggests Nordan: "First, does the opportunity represent a process innovation that stops at the factory door or a product innovation that is visible to customers? Second, does the opportunity present an evolutionary advance that matches existing competencies or a revolutionary advance that requires new ones? The answers to these questions determine which mix of organizational approaches a company should pursue in developing nanotechnology."