African-American Males and the Correlation

African-American Males and the Correlation Between Affective Disorders, Substance Abuse, And the Criminal Justice System

Studies Supporting African-American Male Criminal Activity

Mental Health, Substance Abuse and Aggressive Behavior

The Link Between Victimization and Psychopathology

African-American Males and the Correlation Between Affective

Disorders, Substance Abuse and the Criminal Justice System

In recent years a growing body of research suggests that crime is on the rise among the African Male population, and that this crime may result from a variety of social problems including a history of abuse and psychological disorders among the population in question (Gil, et. al, 2004; Coker, 2003; Lloyd & Gil, 2002 Miller, 1997; Having worked within the health care field recently, the researcher noticed a steady increase in the number of African-American male patients presenting with substance abuse problems either on probation or recently released from prison. The increase in the number of African-American male patients seems at best disproportionate and requires further investigation.

Many of the individuals examined also presented with affective disorders prior to developing substance abuse problems. This supports the evidence currently growing that African-American males incarcerated for violent and non-violent crimes may require further evaluation for affective disorders. These disorders may contribute to substance abuse problems, which may in turn result in criminal or aggressive tendencies, an idea supported by multiple researchers (Coker, 2003; Loyd & Gil, 2002). Much of the research that has been conducted up until this point in time examines trends in behavior and the likelihood that adolescent problems and mental disorders may be linked with deviant adult behavior including substance abuse problems and criminal activity (Coker, 2003). It is vital that further investigations are made in order to enable better treatment and prevention protocols to reduce the disproportionate number of African-American males subject to criminal activity or substance abuse problems. Part of the aim of this research will focus on these needs.

Within the urban population represented at the facility the researcher worked at, many males were exposed to traumatic events including domestic violence that may also have contributed to their present victimization. Many demonstrated disorders in early adolescence through adulthood and subsequently became involved in illegal activities including but not limited to selling drugs or performing other crimes as a means to support abusive habits. There is ample evidence in the literature that early childhood trauma and inadequate support systems are often present with substance abuse patients or with individuals prone to violent or aggressive behaviors (Gil, Montgomery, Tubman & Wagner, 2004).

Gil, et. al (2004) suggest that interpersonal violence is often associated with "higher probabilities of negative physical and mental health outcomes" but also confirms that the correlation between mental health and violence and substance abuse remain at best "poorly understood" (p. 147). Multiple researchers have documented the long-term effects of abuse in childhood on adult outcome, reporting a greater likelihood of negative outcomes and higher rates of psychiatric disorders among individuals exposed to traumatic events (Gil, et. al, 147). This clearly demonstrates that other factors including a history of abuse or sub-optimal environmental factors may all contribute to the likelihood that someone suffering an affective disorder will turn to drugs or other substances to mitigate their problems. The likelihood that these individuals will go on to engage in criminal activity need be further examined.

Many of the models proposed thus far related to psychological health, substance abuse and violence have been "trauma based" suggesting that a series of abuse experiences may increase the risk "for both psychiatric disorders and risky behaviors" and that abuse experiences "may be associated with a series of deficits in normal development of socio emotional competences and psychological well being" (Gil, et. al 147).

Significance of Problem

Recent studies have highlighted the growing number of people incarcerated for violent and non-violent crimes in the U.S. (Miller, 1997). Crime is only one small part of the picture however. It is vital that law enforcement agencies recognize the potential for mental health disorders that, when left untreated, may contribute to deviant activity. Prevention is much more likely to enable fewer aggressive and substance abuse problems than addressing problems after they arise.

In recent years studies suggest an alarming increase of the number of African-American males within the criminal justice system. In addition a rise of mental health disorders among this population is evident. Miller (1997) describes the problem as "disastrous" suggesting that up to one third of African-American Males aged eighteen to twenty one arrested and charged with criminal offenses within any given year (1). A study conducted by the National Center on Institutions and Alternatives reported that on any given day up to 42% of African-American males between the ages of 18 and 35 living in the District of Columbia "were in jail, prison or on probation/parole, or being sought for arrest warrants" (Miller 1).

"Excessive costs" associated with incarcerating victims who may need treatment for affective or other psychopathic conditions exact a huge toll on society (Machin, Rogers & Salekin, 173). As the number of young males incarcerated continues to grow early identification of psychopathic conditions is clearly becoming more and more important (Machin, et. al, 2001; Grisso, 1996).

Purpose Of Proposed Study

The purpose of this study is an examination of the life experiences of African-American Males to determine whether a correlation exists between the mental disorders demonstrated and criminal justice system involvement. To accomplish this the researcher will examine the following research questions: (1) what if any relationship exists between presence of an affective disorder or other mental disorder and criminal behavior, (2) what relationship if any exists between mental disorders and substance abuse problems, (3) the relationship between adolescent history of abuse and other trauma, affective disorders and violent or aggressive behavior later in life and (4) what if any steps might be taken to address the issues resulting from any uncovered relationships.

To examine these questions in greater detail the researcher proposes a comprehensive literature review that will examine the nature of affective disorders and other mental problems in adults and children, the relationship between mental problems and substance abuse and the correlation if any between mental health, substance abuse and aggressive or criminal activity. The researcher will also embark on quantitative analysis using a self report tool to examine a population of young African-American males incarcerated at a local New Jersey center. The information gathered from these interviews will be combined with information gathered from the literature review to enable scientifically grounded conclusions regarding the relationship between the variables examined.

The researcher assumes for purposes of this study that all study participants are willing participants fully informed of the study's intent, goals and expected research outcomes. The researcher hypothesis the following: an obvious correlation exists between the presence of affective disorders in African-American males and subsequent substance abuse problems and incarcerations. The null hypothesis is as follows: no obvious correlation exists between the presence of affective disorders in African-American males and subsequent substance abuse problems and incarcerations.

Preliminary Literature Review

The preliminary literature review supports the need for additional research into the relationship between affective disorders, substance abuse and criminal activity among the African-American male population. Miller (1997) points out that throughout the 199s an "absolute majority of young minority males were being arrested" for minor crimes and misdemeanors, while three million arrests were reported for serious or violent crimes (p. 2). The researcher notes the "grossly disproportionate percentages" of young African-American males arrested compared with non-minorities or other minority groups (Miller, 2).

Studies Supporting African-American Male Criminal Activity

Miller (1997) cites a 1990 report by the RAND Corporation of African-American Males living in DC, which shows more than 42% in jail, on probation, or being sought fro crimes. Yet another survey conducted in Baltimore shows that 56% of African-American males between the ages of 18 and 21 had either been arrested or were "under justice supervision of some sort" (p. 2). Interestingly a majority of the arrests made are not for violent crimes but rather for lesser felonies or misdemeanors (Miller, 2). Studies suggest that African-American males are arrested in some cases at "six times the rate of whites," and that many of the arrests were for possession (Miller, 2).

Many of the racial disparities that exist with regard to African male arrests remain "unexplained by racial differences in offending" (Coker 827). Because of this it is vital that researchers uncover the core social problems leading to arrests and imprisonments within this population (Coker, 2003).

Mental Health, Substance Abuse and Aggressive Behavior

There is however much evidence pointing to affective disorders and substance abuse problems within the African-American male population, which may contribute to drug dependence and criminal activity (Widom & White, 1997; Wagner, Loyd & Gil, 2002; Zeitlin, 1999; Gil, et. al, 2004). Still other evidence points to drug use early in adolescence as contributing to criminal behavior, and that early drug use may be associated with other domestic, violence or abuse problems and mental health disorders even in youth (Vega & Gil, 1998; Turner & Lloyd, 1995; Tubman, Langer & Calderon, 2001).

Other evidence suggests patterns of dependence symptoms and alcohol abuse may be linked with depressive or other disorders in adolescents, which may progress into adulthood leading to criminal activity (Martin, Kaczynski, Maisto & Bukstein, 1995; Kessler, et. al, 1996; Kilpatrick, et. al, 2000).

Other evidence links aggressive behavior later in life with affective disorders in adolescence or young adulthood which may contribute to adult violent tendencies (Downey & Walker, 1992; Elze, Stiffman & Dore, 1999; Fergusson, Horwood & Lynskey, 1996; Ackerman, et. al, 1998). Elze, Stiffman & Dore (1999) emphasize the "correlation between violence and youth's mental problems" explaining the two are "inextricably linked" to one another, and that mental health problems when not addressed adequately can lead to violence unchecked in adolescence and later in life (p. 222). This notion is further supported by Carlson & Dalenburg (2000) who suggest that violence and abuse may be "exacerbated" in conditions where affective disorders prevail (p. 22).

The Link Between Victimization and Psychopathology

Existing data clearly links "victimization history and psychopathology" (Gil, et. al, 147). Further the research available of community samples of adolescents suggests a relationship between alcohol and drug abuse, assault, violence abuse, higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders, PTSD and suicidal behaviors (Gil, et. al, 2004; Ackerman, et. al 1999). Clinical samples also link psychiatric disorders with later substance abuse, affective and anxiety disorders and aggressive tendencies and behaviors (Gil, et. al, 204; Brand, et. al, 1996; Loeber, 1999).

The literature available with respect to adult criminology suggests that "psychopathic offenders commit more crimes and a wider range of crimes than others" (Machin, et. al, 173). In addition there is a higher rate of recidivism reported among these offenders (Machin, et. al, 2001; Haynes, Richard & Kubany, 1995).

Summary of Preliminary Research

The preliminary research review supports a link between affective disorders, substance abuse in youth and adolescence and later incarceration or criminal activity. Though there is ample evidence suggesting that substance abuse and aggressive behaviors may be tied to psychiatric disorders, further research is still necessary to determine what steps are necessary to prevent or reform individuals victimized in this manner. There is also ample evidence supporting the increasing number of African-American males specifically that are incarcerated each year for violent and non-violent criminal activities.

Literature supporting higher rates of recidivism among offenders with affective disorders and substance abuse problems clearly points to the need for prevention and treatment programs among this population. Thus far the literature uncovered suggests that diagnosis of affective disorders or other mental conditions precedes any aggressive activity or drug and substance abuse among victims. If anything one may conclude that individuals with affective or other disorders might use drugs to help ameliorate the symptoms of their condition, which may be exacerbated by untoward living conditions. Criminal activity may follow as a means to feed a victim's addiction and treat their mental disorder. Further research in this area is necessary to confirm or disprove this notion.

Limitations

As with any study certain factors can not be controlled. The optimal population sample can't be determined nor can the researcher evaluate a sample size great enough to generalize the results to the population at large due to financial and time constraints. However the researcher has selected a sample size based on multiple previous studies, which suggest the sample size selected represents the average population incarcerated at this time.

The self report instrument also lends itself to some subjectivity, which may threaten internal validity. The researcher will attempt to minimize this threat by reviewing as large a sample size as possible and ensuring questions are clear and understood by participants to as great extent as possible.

The researcher will also work to establish internal validity by comparing the results of the field research with information gathered from the literature review. To the best extend possible the researcher will use objective processes to compare data and formulate grounded conclusions. The researcher will have the questions developed for the self report instrument peer reviewed to limit the possibility of personal bias and subjectivity. This will also help improve the internal validity of the results of the study.

Sample Size

The study will include two self report instruments for quantitative analysis. A semi-structured interview with a smaller sample of the larger group will be tested using the self report instruments. The research will be conducted in a mid size prison in New Jersey. It will examine the seriousness of the offense and length of time prisoners remained within the criminal justice system.

The study will include a sample size of adults aged 18 to 25 years who are incarcerated for a period of time ranging 3 months to 1 or more years. The study will include 50 participants from a NJ jail and 20 participants in an associated probationary program. The researcher also suggests a random sample of 10 male participants for follow up.

Delimitations

The results of this study may be safely generalized to African-American male populations of criminals incarcerated for criminal activity with a history of affective disorders. The study will also be limited in size to African-American males between the ages of 18 and 25 as the majority of research currently available suggests that this population is most affected and relevant. Much of the research conducted thus far incorporates similar age ranges.

The information gathered in this study may not be correlated with studies related to minority women or women incarcerated. This population is not being studied for purposes of research as the body of evidence that currently exists suggests the minority male population is currently suffering more rapid inclines than the female population. The researcher has opted for quantitative rather than qualitative analysis to provide more comprehensive statistical information that will assert without a doubt whether a correlation exists between the proposed variables.

Implications

This study highlights the correlation between experiences of trauma or other environmental factors and mental health problems with health risk problems including substance abuse among adolescents and young adults. It also correlates aggressive behaviors later in life with risk factors including affective disorders and substance abuse or abuse experiences later in life. The majority of research available at this time remains unclear with respect the exact relationships between psychiatric disorders or affective disorders and criminal experiences later in life, though a growing body of evidence points toward a direct relationship between the two (Gil, et. al, 2004).

The initial findings of the research study support further investigation into the relationship between affective disorders, substance abuse and criminal activity among African-American males. Current literature also supports the need for examination into methods for preventing criminal activity among African-American males to reduce the disparity that currently exists with regard to arrests and incarcerations among this population. Prevention programs may need to focus on treating the affective disorders and other factors that may contribute to violence or substance abuse including a family history of violence or abuse.

Clearly there is ample evidence suggesting the young African-American males with mental health disorders or histories of abuse of any kind are more vulnerable to engaging in criminal behaviors, whether violent or otherwise (Lynam, 1996; Loeber, Lahey & Thomas, 1991; Loeber, Green, Keenan & Lahey, 1995). It is the job of healthcare agencies and other administrators to help develop strategies for delivering effective treatment and support programs to enable a reduction in risk related behaviors among this population (Rice, Harris & Cormier, 1992; Ogloff, Wong & Greenwood, 1990).

References:

Ackerman, P.T., Newton, J.E.O., McPherson, W.B., Jones, J.G., & Dykman R.A. (1998).

"Prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses in three groups of abused children (sexual, physical, and both)." Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 759-774.

Brand, E.F., King, C.A., Olson, E., Ghaziuddin, N., & Naylor, M. (1996). "Depressed adolescents with a history of sexual abuse: Diagnostic co morbidity and suicidality." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 34-41.