Agonquin Indian Tribes of Michigan

Agonquin Indian Tribes of Michigan and the Influence the Early French Had on These Tribes

The history of the American people is the result of numerous influences that have put their mark on what is today the American culture and heritage. The entire array of factors that have determined the unique yet troubled history of the United States belong to numerous cultures and civilization that have remained to this day important landmarks for the definition of the cultural framework of this country. In this sense, the Indians have had a considerable contribution to the establishment of the cultural background as well as of the environment in which later settlers, such as the Europeans would place their mark and in which they would develop a distinctive cultural identity.

A good example for such facts is those represented by the Algonquin Indian tribes from Michigan. The present paper will address precisely the relationship between the Indians and the French settlers, which represented an important contribution to the history of our nation and the local culture.

ABSTRACT

Once the North American continent is discovered, it becomes an appealing target for most Europeans. However, in the Michigan region the French exercised an extensive influence over the local population and determined an original set of items that can be considered to be an important asset to the American cultural framework. However, in order to see the actual impact of the French and their influence on the Indian population in the area it is important to consider several aspects which may shed some light on the events that led to the creation of a distinctive culture, as well as of a regional identity which proves the unique sense of the history of the era.

Firstly, the role of the culture that existed before the French arrival is important for determining the precise structure of the native Indian society and for pointing out in the end the elements, which suffered the greatest change after the French arrival. Secondly, a detailed account on the actual modifications in the Indian life after the French arrival is essential because it offers an image of the assimilation of the European values by the natives and, at the same time, it gives a perspective of the way in which the contacts between the two sides took place. Thirdly, taking into account that in the end the changes that occurred were also related to politics and that problems arising from the differences in cultures and approaches were often solved through treaties and land acts, it is important to take into account the way in which disputes and misunderstandings were solved through law. All these are necessary questions to be raised and answered especially taking into account the complexity of the issue and the significance it has for the history of the United States.

PART ONE

HISTORY and CULTURE BEFORE the FRENCH ARRIVAL

The Indian tribes of the Great Lakes region were one of the most representative presences of population in America. Richard White in the Middle Ground refers "to these people as Algonquians, the term is admittedly problematic. Algonquin refers to a language group the domain of whose speakers stretched far beyond the pays d'en haut. And not all the people of the pays d'en haut were Algonquin speakers" the geographical position is therefore established. There are other coordinates as well that can determine the region of the Algonquin tribes. More precisely, the Algonquian were made up of several hundred tribes, which occupied most of the Canadian region lying to the south of Hudson Bay between the Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. Also, they occupied that section of what is now the United States extending northward from North Carolina and Tennessee. The cartographical representation of the tribes made by White in these regions is important because it often resulted in clashes with the Iroquois or the Sioux tribes.

The present analysis focuses on four tribes of the Algonquin Indians represented according to the Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society. They were taken into consideration particularly because of their non-conflict relation as "the Chippewas, or Ojibwas, Ottawa's, Potawatamies and the Huron or Wyandots (...) usually acted together and in harmony" They were the representatives for the areas they inhabited throughout history. However, they were considered to be nomadic tribes, an element which clearly points to one important aspect of their culture and way of life. In this sense, the geographical position and environment did not allow them to undergo any activities related to agriculture. This innovation pointed out the fact that the Algonquin tribes were developed enough to follow the characteristics of the environment in which they lived and at the same time to properly and successfully adapt to the requests of the natural conditions.

A general account of the early history of the Indian tribes is related to some basic descriptions of the way in which they ran their existence. Painting such an image is essential for creating a wide perspective on the identity of the Algonquin Indians. In this sense, "our pioneer fathers and mothers (...) found a race of people unknown to them in the land from which they came. The wild savage of the forest was frequently found lurking in the bush and tall grass, ready to strike down, with gunshots or tomahawk, the unsuspecting whites. (...). The very easy surveyors in pursuit of their calling and the pioneer in exploring this region for a favorable location for his homestead found large areas (...) upon which were then growing the largest oaks and other trees of the forest." These were some of the basic elements which constituted the natural habitat of the first Indians to be seen by the missionaries.

From the perspective offered by the natural circumstances, the social environment developed accordingly. Therefore, there were two distinctive elements that separate the way in which social relations were conducted. On the one hand, there were certain socializing activities in the summer, but during the winter the communities were much reduced in order to enable better possibilities for movement.

On the other hand, the cultural identity of the Algonquin tribes can also be explored from the point-of-view of the structure of the society. In this sense, the society was based on the patriarchal structure. More precisely, the main role inside the small Algonquin society was that of the man. Therefore, the centerpiece of the family was represented by the fatherly figure. There is indirect evidence which attests this issue, taking into account the simple fact that none of the stories of brave deeds of Indians even include a woman as a central piece. This was an important element in the wider economy of the social structure because it offered the viewpoint of the inheritance options; more precisely, in most cases, the property of the family was acquired on paternal line, while women were disregarded in this sense.

In terms of the history of the Algonquin tribes, it must be said from the very beginning that it was greatly influenced by the arrival of the French population in the early 17th century. The presence of the French colonialists is not necessarily historically attested but rather there are various accounts of their presence. In this sense, "the French, says Archbishop Spalding seem to have visited Michigan as early as the year 1610, and missionaries went thither occasionally soon afterward, but no priest appears to have been stationed at Detroit before 1701." Therefore, it can be said that in the beginning the presence of the French was limited, and in time, it came to be a permanent affair.

Currently, as most sources reveal, there are ten communities of Algonquin Indians, none of them in Quebec, and one in Ontario However, these communities are the result of a combination between the early settlers in the region and the European presence, in particular that of the French. However, there are little accounts of the clashes between them; nonetheless, history points out their encounters in order to establish the fact that their clashes made them vulnerable for the outside threats such as the French or the British, respectively. Therefore, it can be pointed out the fact that there was not only the colonist pressure which enabled them to take control of the Algonquin tribes; it was also the local historical framework which created the proper environment for their conquest.

As it has been stated in the beginning, the French were the dominant influence for the Algonquin tribes. In order to have a better account of the situation in which the contacts with the Europeans were established in the 17th century, it is important to consider the economic and cultural relations that were established at the time between the natives and the whites. On the one hand, there was commerce which enabled relations to be established. On the other hand, the political and cultural aspects are also essential for creating the relations between them.

The fur trade represented one of the most important endeavors of the Indian tribes. However, analysts believe that the fur trade was more than a lucrative affair and it came to be a means of communication and acculturation. Finally it also represented an important means of conducting the foreign policy from the point-of-view of the French occupation. In this sense, "the North America fur trade of the 17th and 18th centuries had usually been viewed, until recently, as merely another commercial enterprise governed by the premise "buy cheap, sell dear" in order to rip the maximum of profit. Of late the Canadian end of the trade has come to be regarded as having been more a means to a noncommercial end than a pursuit conducted solely for economic gain. As European penetration and dominance of the continent progressed, the trade, which had begun as an adjunct of the Atlantic shore fishery, became a commercial pursuit in its own right. After 1600 (...) it became a means to finance and further the tragic drive to convert the Indian nations to Christianity."

Aside from the Algonquin tribes, the Huron tribes were also a significant element in its conduct. More precisely, it is considered that although the Algonquians were the main proponents of this endeavor, the Huron tribes took control of the trade in the 17th century. The fur trade represented not only a means of commerce but also a reason for deep tensions between the local tribes. Therefore, this commercial endeavor had cultural repercussions or effects which determined the complexity of the relation between the two sides.

Together with the fur trade, another major object that was exchanged or traded was alcohol. Although it may seem in the beginning to be a rather strange affair, trading alcohol became a major issue in the relation between the Indians and the French. However, it remained strictly connected with the fur trade. More precisely, "alcohol was crucial in the fur trade for two reasons. First the Indians craved it more than anything else; even though they knew that it could destroy them, they could not resist it, and they would go to any lengths to obtain all that was available.

Second, from the purely economic aspect of the trade, alcohol was the ideal exchange item, of other goods- cloth, wearing apparel, pots, knives, axes, muskets- the Indians had a limited need (...) but the appetite for eau de vie was virtually insatiable, driving the Indians to produce furs in ever larger quantities." Therefore, it can be said that one of the first influences the Europeans had on the Indian population was the consumption of alcohol and therefore the desire to increase and in the end reduce the production of furs and the resources of animals respectively. In time, under the pressure and influence of the Europeans, the Indians came to slowly destroy their habitat and transform their traditional life in a practical one.

This historical evolution was obvious as fur trade began to be considered, more and more, an important endeavor for the tribes in the region. In this sense, the Algonquin tribes, the Iroquois, as well as the Huron's, were engaged in this affair. However, by the middle of the 17th century, the large amount of fur that was being taken overseas destabilized the European markets and demanded measures that would set a monopoly on the trade. In this sense, "Louis Phklypeaux de Pontchartrain, the minister of marine responsible for the colonies, (tried) to force the Canadian fur traders to withdraw from the west completely." This strategy was based on the idea that on the one hand, the fur trade came to be used as a tool for the confrontation between the European powers on the one hand, and as a means for local dominance of one tribe or another. Even more, the Huron tribes held the monopoly of fur trades as different tribes including the Algonquin were supplying them. Therefore, the French reconsidered their strategy and tried to set direct contacts with these tribes, avoiding the intermediary position of the Huron tribes. This is an important development because it offered the European country the opportunity to engage in direct contact with the Algonquin tribes.

On the other hand however, there was also the issue of the political facts that determined the way in which the European relations were established with the Native Americans. In this sense, the historical background is important because it offers a proper perspective on the way in which European politics was conducted and in which colonies overseas were used in this regard. More precisely, the colonial confrontations between the French, the English, and the Dutch were rarely considered to be an issue of debate on the European continent; the battles that were taking place in the colonies were representative precisely for the tensions existing between the colonial powers.

From this point-of-view, it can be said that the association of France with the Algonquin Indian tribes was the result of the French desire to create the proper support against the British. Therefore, the fur trade became a means of conducting foreign policy. In this sense "for over half a century the fur trade was used by France as an instrument of its foreign policy and, owing to the peculiar skills of the Canadians, with considerable success. By means of it most of the India nations supported the French cause in the colonial wars but they did so as long as it appeared to them to serve their immediate interest" Therefore, it can be argued that in the end, commercial exchanges were useful for securing support in times of war as well as for securing the basic necessities. Nonetheless, it can be pointed out the fact that in the end, the Indian population had been a self sufficient nation and could have survived without the commercial input of the French. Nonetheless, the political role the alliance with the French had in the regional context greatly determined the Indians to enter relations with the Europeans and act submissively and cooperatives at times.

Even more, through the use of missionaries and economic incentives in terms of important exchanges of goods, the French attracted the tribes on its side in the fight against the British. Therefore, there was a certain competition between the colonial powers and the fact that the French had acquired such an important portion of land was essential in their confrontation. Thus, "we may never forget- we should ever be proud to remember- that for the first century of its existence, the metropolis of our state, the City of the Straits, was essentially French in all its characteristics. We should never forget that the pioneers of civilization and Christianity along the shores of the Noble River and mighty lakes that form the boundaries of our state were French Jesuits." In time, this relationship developed and it was the beginning of a new, distinct, and unique culture in America. It must be said nonetheless that "the Hurons were the first nation that cordially opened their hearts to the reception of the Christian faith. They occupied a somewhat anomalous position in relation to the two great divisions into which the Indians bordering on the St. Lawrence and its tributaries were divided- the Algonquians and the Iroquois"

The cultural aspect is essential for the analysis on the way in which the encounter with the French impacted the Indian population from the region to such an extent as to create a distinct culture in the American region. Therefore it is important to consider their contacts from the perspective of a theoretical approach as well.

The presence of the French in the region determined a rather important outcome for the Indians. On the one hand, it meant an encounter with foreigners. On the other, it represented a challenge to their existence.

The first accounts of the contacts between the French ad the Indians have in focus Cartier and Champlain. From the point-of-view of the their experiences, "when Jacque Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence in 1534 he found banks inhabited by tribes of the great Algonquins and at Hocelagu, Montreal he found a very populous Indian town. When Champlain first raised the banner of France on the rock of St. Louis the Algonquians gathered around him to give him welcome. He found them the hereditary enemies of their neighbors the Iroquois, a race with similar habits, but a radically different language, fewer in numbers, and occupying a country far less in extent of territory; but these disadvantages were more than compensated by their compactness, their admirable system of government, by their superior prowess, and by their haughty ambition." This presentation points out thus both the initial aspects of the situation of the tribes as the French arrived in the U.S., as well as the conditions of relation between the tribes.

Taking into account the French relation with the Indians once the contacts had been established, there are several aspects that are to be considered. The French were the proponents of a superior civilization, in which war and peace were considered not so much in violent means, but rather in diplomatic ones. This would be one element to indicate the way in which the French would eventually discuss the issue of the Indian population in New France and the Great Lakes region, through treaties signed between the parties, and not so much through the force of arms. The Indians on the other hand, were the exponential elements of a civilization that was based on a basic political structure, on a society in which the conflicts often resulted in wars, and which determined the outcome of the tensions between them through fighting. More precisely, "the entire native world differed drastically from that of the Europeans. There were no empires or kingdoms and probably only a few loose confederacies with which to deal. Even most groups now recognized as tribes or nations developed those identities after 1500 and often as a result of contact with the invaders."

The major discussion concerning the cultural issue refers to the possibility of acculturation. In this sense, Richard White presents an eloquent theory related to the way in which the relationship between the French and the Indians can be explained and described.

Thus, Richard White considers that in fact one cannot talk about acculturation, but rather about the desire of both parties and the awareness of the two to strike a balance and work efficiently together. He discusses the term of "middle ground" which could describe the way in which the Native population and the French came to cooperate. In this sense, he argues that "the Europeans and Indians met and regarded each other as alien as other, as virtually nonhuman...over the next two centuries, they constructed a common, mutually comprehensive world in the region around the Great Lakes the French called the pays d'en haut" Therefore, the author argues that there was a deep need for reconsidering the other as a partner rather than an enemy, taking into account the fact that from the point-of-view of the economic cooperation a peaceful relation with the French wound have been more benefic to the Algonquin tribes than a conflicting one.

An important aspect of the process of cultural communication was the matter of marriage. In this sense, the marriages that were created between Indian women and French men proved to be viable solution for narrowing down the cultural gap between the two sides. It was also a crucial aspect in the commerce relationship because it enabled both sides to redefine their relations based not only on financial gains, but also on kinship. In this sense, "marital and kinship strategies transformed trade into a social process and mediated the disruptions inherent in disparate and competing economic systems. Indian communities successfully incorporated European traders as well as other strangers, and even enemies, through intermarriage. Marriage... transformed French fur trades into friends, family, and allies. Kinship transformed the impersonal exchange process characteristic of capitalism into a socially accountable process" Therefore, it can be said that the use of marriage as a connection point for the cultural exchanges between the French and the Native Indians proved an important aspect in the way in which both of them eventually understood the other part's culture.

The process that took place at the cultural level has often been a subject for debate because it was considered to be an acculturation process. However, Richard White points out the fact that it is not necessarily a matter of acculturation but rather one of accommodation. More precisely, he argues that this process of cultural change "takes place on the middle ground. The middle ground is the place in between: in between cultures, peoples, and in between empires and the non-state of villagers. It is the place where many of the North America subjects and allies of empires lived. It is the area between the historical foreground of European invasion and occupation and the background of Indian defeat and retreat."

From the perspective offered by White it can be concluded that in fact the decent living of life in common for the Indians and the French was a historical consequence of the conditions of the time. More precisely, the French could not conquer the Indians because they represented a significant force opposing the small expeditionary mission of the French. At the same time however, they could not ignore them either because practically speaking they were a source of support against the British who supported the Iroquois and who had set its eyes on the fur trade and its benefits. Therefore, they found a common solution through which the Indian culture was kept significantly in its limits, while they could benefit from the fur trade and from the insurance of the lack of any British influence.

The issue of the cultural accommodation was an essential part in the relationship between the Indians and the French. It was obvious from the point-of-view of the success the French had to have in terms of the fur trade and the territorial occupation of the region. The French had been in constant war with the British in their struggle for supremacy in the colonies. This is why the cultural accommodation was crucial in order to ensure that the support for an eventual British led offensive operation would not benefit from the support of the English.

The signs of the accommodation process and of the well established relations between the Indians and the French were obvious even in the late years of the 19th century. In this sense, there is proof of the cultural inter-mingling in the region. Thus,"between 1836 and 1840, in the wilderness portion of Michigan, and along the large streams and channels, it was not uncommon to find the solidarity lodge of a Frenchman with his squaw wife, and sometimes two wives, and a troop of half-breed children. They lived more like Indians than white people, associated chiefly with them and depended upon fishing"

PART TWO

CONTACTS and RELATIONS WITH the FRENCH

The first contacts between the two sides were not however peaceful. The Indians had known the Spanish experience and were to a certain extent aware of the possible mischief of the white people. However, unlike the Spanish who eventually took the road of Latin America, the French had a better consideration for the cultural distinction between the Indians and the Europeans. Even so, in the beginning they were reluctant to any peaceful behavior. More precisely, it is considered that the first to reach the U.S. was Jacques Cartier, who "by government authority, made a voyage to New Found Land, entered the gulf and river which he named St. Lawrence, prospecting about the islands, making little more than a reconnaissance."

There is a matter of colonial difference concerning the experience of the French in the United States. At the same time, the other colonial forces that were trying the enter the land had differing practices. The French on the other hand were culturally and morally different. In this sense, "Jacques Cartier's explorations in the Saint Lawrence Valley of eastern Canada... avoided much of the Spaniards' open brutality and greed, but his dealings with the northern tribes barely remained peaceable. By the time he got to eastern Canada the tribal peoples there had opened informal trading with the European fishing vessels along the coast. Despite these early contacts, Cartier knew little about the native peoples when he crossed the Atlantic....In early July 1534, while he sailed in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Indian canoes approached his ship for trade. When efforts to wave the unwelcome visitors away failed, the Frenchman ordered the ship's cannons fired in an effort to frighten them. When the Indians continued their approach, the sailors shot off two fire-lances, which scattered among them and frightened them so much that they began to paddle off. Once Cartier realized that the Indians came to trade he allowed some Montagnais to board the vessels as freely as if they had been Frenchmen."However, despite the openness of the Indians and the fact that they were attracted by the novelty of the items brought in exchange by the Frenchmen, the Europeans were still circumspect about the surroundings and the nature of the native people and " kidnapped two sons of Donnacona, chief of Stadacona, a village near present-day Quebec City."

These early first contacts however proved essential for the way in which North America would be later seen in terms of riches and trading possibilities. The fact that the region in itself became an interesting source of financial gain, as well as the idea that Britain would as well consider North America in its expansionist quest represented an important element in creating the sense of determination that drove the French back in the territories of the native population.

The need for a peaceful relationship with the French was obvious, as the history of the Algonquin tribes was marked by an increasing number of battles and conflicts with the Iroquois. In 1603, Champlain was the first French official to establish contacts with the community. This was motivated by a practical reason, as "the French became partners with and even dependents of the Indians because the native Canadians' environmental knowledge, hunting skills, and willingness to cooperate made them crucial. Not only did they provide the beaver and other pelts, but the tribal people greatly outnumbered the French. This made it relatively easy for the villagers to dictate both the terms and methods of the evolving trade."However, the establishment of the first French settlement in Detroit is seen as a strategy to colonies the area in reaction to the increasing British pressures. Therefore, it can be said that aside from the economic perspectives, the presence of the French on the natives' land was also a matter of political strategies. This was seen in the subsequent political agreements that took place once the first French settlement was established in Detroit.

A major element which marked the relation between the French and the Indians was the French war with the British. It had this impact because the colonial powers were often using the native Indians as secondary tools in their fight over territory. In this sense, the constant disputes between the French and the English represent a relevant example for the way in which local affairs are mingled together with international disputes and, at the same time, they point out the fact that the contacts with the natives were strategically created by both sides in order to be used in a more important battle between the two colonial powers.

The French and Indian war resulted from the increased desires of the two sides to expand. However, taking into account the fact that either the British or the French had occupied all the territories, it was considered that the only solution to solve both the issue concerning the two powers, as well as the tensions between the rivaling tribes was armed confrontation.

One of the major concerns of the two sides, the French and the British revolved around the issue of controlling the Indian tribes. This is obvious from the official documents and correspondence that was being delivered at the time. In this sense, in order to prevent the British trade with the Algonquin Indians, "it would be [advisable] to take steps to ensure that the posts of Niagara and Fort Frontenac should always be well supplied with goods for trading, and this will be very easy when the King's ship arrives early, as this year. As regards the post of Detroit, and also to prevent the trade of the English with the savages, it would be important to pursue the objects which we had when it was first established; and to succeed in that, it would be necessary to set up a good garrison there to begin with, in order that, as intended by the Court, the commandant of that post might be in a position to maintain good order there, and make himself respected by the French people and the savages" Thus, it was clear that although there was a certain sense of trust among the French in regard to the Indians, they were determined to keep the monopoly of the fur trade and their relations with the Indians.

PART THREE

POLITICAL ISSUES, TREATIES, and LAND ACTS

The issue of the French war was essential for the relation between the Indians and the Europeans. It did not include simply the Algonquian tribes, but also their regional enemies. From this point-of-view, it is important to consider the main provisions.

The act that sealed the end of the war between the two sides was the Treaty of Paris which "gave all of North America east of the Mississippi, other than New Orleans, to the British. The French also turned over their claims of New Orleans and the lands west of the Mississippi to Spain, as compensation for Spain's surrendering Florida to the British "However, in determining these solutions, none of the parties representing the native population in these territories were consulted. Therefore, it can be said that the treaties were being drawn up without any due regard for the ones whose lives would eventually be influenced by the decisions undertaken.

A natural consequence of the Indian war was the increase in the dissatisfaction with the outcome. The Indians who had been supported by the French came to consider the eventual British rule as an outrageous solution for the future of the tribes. The reasons were in particular related to the traditional view of the British over the relationship with the native population. More precisely, "English dominance in North America meant the construction of new forts and the movement of new settlers into traditional Indian lands. The earlier French presence had been slight and the relationship often harmonious" Therefore, the strategy of the British rule implied the transformation of the land available into reservations that would have enabled the British to have better control of the Indians and to oversee their activities.

Another matter of concern for the Indians was the fact that "British arrogance was well-known among the Indians. The French in many instances had married native women and been adopted by the tribes. Few British followed that example and many expressed utter contempt for the natives' life ways and worth as human beings" (Oregon Coast Magazine, n.d.). In this sense, the elitism that had characterized the British in their history with the Indian population did not allow them to create the same type of relationship that the French had created with tribes such as the Algonquin. This is the result of the cultural approach the French adopted when they entered in contact with the first Indian tribes. As stated before, they focused on catering for the human nature of the Indians which is security in order to gain their support. From this point-of-view, the decision to come under the rule of the British was unacceptable for parts of the Indian population.