American corrections system and practices

American Corrections

The statistics about imprisoned Americans in jails of local, state, and federal prisons and juvenile detention centers reveals a growth from 1,319,000 numbers in 2002 to 2,166,260 in 2002. During the year 2003 has seen the fastest rate of growth of imprisonment over the period of recent four years. The rate of growth of prisoners in state prisons is estimated to 1.8% while that in federal prisons is 7.1% and in local jails in 3.9%. Contrast to a growth rate of 2.7% among the male prisoners in the state and federal prisons, the prisoners the female prisoners grew by 5%. It is noticed that even though the growth rate of the female prisoners are than that of male prisoners, yet the male prisoners in terms of absolute numbers are much higher than the female prisoners who are only 100,102 in comparison to the male prisoners of 1.36 million numbers. (Cass, Report: 1 of Every 75 U.S. Men in Prison)

Taking the scenario of federal prisons in to consideration, the 163,528 numbers of prisoners constitute the highest in any of the states. The increasing number of prisoners during 1995-2001 is mostly attributed to drug crimes as much as 45%, whereas only 9% are due to violent criminal activities. (Butterfield, A6) The prisoners convicted out of drug crimes constitute nearly two third in the federal prisons and it is nearly one fourth in case of state and local prisons. About one fourth of the prisoners in the federal and state prisons are mostly non-violent and are convicted out of the offences associated with the drugs. The impact of new drug policy is most on women captivity that forced the rate of growth by nearly hundred percent than that of men since 1980. It has been estimated that nearly one third of the women prisoners are presently due to the crimes associated with drugs. (Chaddock, 7)

During the periods of Clinton and Bush Senior efforts were made by the congress along with the Presidents to centralize some illegitimate gun possession cases, which increased the number of prisoners under the category by around 70%. The statistics also accounted for two third of the total prisoners of America are under the captivity of the States, in the Columbian District and at the central level while only the rest are in the custody of local jails. The national growth rate of prisoners is attributed to increase in their growth rate in some of major states such as Michigan, Florida, Pennsylvania, California, etc. It is evident that in California the number of prisoners is highest among the states and the Texas has the highest proportion of prisoners in relation to its population. (Parkin, 69) The number of prisoners in California considered being highest accounts to be 162,317 and next to it are 162,003 in Texas. The rate of imprisonment in Louisiana is considered to be the highest with 794 per 100,000 inhabitants. The growth of prisoners in ten states is calculated to be a minimum of 5%. It is surprising to notice large growth rates in case of small states like Vermont with 12.2%, Minnesota with 9.4% and Maine with 9.1%. (Cass, Report: 1 of Every 75 U.S. Men in Prison)

The representation of the growth of imprisonment in terms of proportion to the total population, however, makes it incomprehensible to derive the impact of captivity on the different groups of the population. The recent policies of the Government in this manner seem to affect the most to the African-American male population. It has been estimated that the total prisoners during 2002 include 442,300 black males in the age groups of 25 to 29 constituting about 10.4%. Contrary to this the Hispanic men and white men of that age group has a share of only 2.4% and 1.2% respectively. (Butterfield, A6)

It is also revealed that about 12% of total black male are imprisoned at the age of 20s against 3.7% of Hispanic men and 1.6% of white men of the same age group. (Cass, 4) The disproportionate imprisonment against ethnic minorities rose from the 80's, with growing captivity of blacks in comparison to the whites. It is evident that the proportionate prisoners constituting black male in each of the states surpasses their ratio to the total population. The growth in the rate of the black male is surprisingly higher. (Greenfeld, et. al, 35) The existence of this significant disproportion adversely against black male is not of recent origin; however, according to the studies in the Department of Justice it is officially recognized with empirical evidence only in 2003.According to the studies made in the Department of Justice, birth of a black male predicts 29% of his life in imprisonment either in State or Federal prisons. (Chaddock, 7)

The frequency of conviction by the federal courts in case of blacks is more in comparison to the whites due to their increased involvement in the crimes associated with crack cocaine confirmed their feelings of heavier prosecutions in respect of crack cocaine against powder cocaine as the directives of the federal law. The rate of imprisonment of the blacks has a positive correlation with the higher rate of their concentration in the urban areas of the States, which in turn have profound impact on the crime rate and legal violation. Not only is the quantity of imprisonment dreadful but also their undulating effects, which are not to be undermined. The higher probability of imprisonment of blacks makes the generation of black children susceptible to captivity. The present trend forecasts the probability of one to three in case of American black male population for being imprisoned during the lifetime. (Chaddock, 7)

While the figures in case of Hispanic male and white male is one in six and one in seventeen respectively. The vulnerability of other groups such as Afro-American women, Hispanics and Native Americans not as intense as that of black males however, the rates are still more than the national average and exhibiting a steady growth rate over the period of time. The higher growth rates of imprisonment of the racial and ethnic minorities are accounted for to the strict government policies which also reduced the overall violent-crime rates. However, some analysts pointed out that the policy fails to protect the American Society, especially with due regard to the ethnical minorities and poverty ridden groups. (Chaddock, 8) The discriminatory treatment towards minorities such as racial profiling, etc. By the process of criminal justice also give rise to increasing proportion of prisoners from these communities. Ruthless treatment of minority youth is being observed in comparison to the white criminals in the sphere of criminal justice system pertaining to juvenility. (Parkin, 69)

In terms of economic prosperity the United States ranks the highest; however, surprisingly this also exhibits the equally higher rates of captivity. America presently ranks highest in respect of imprisonment both in terms of absolute number as well as proportion to total population. What is shocking is its continuous growing trend. The published statistics reveals about the largest prisoners are in America. Next to America in terms of the number of prisoners China ranks high and in terms of rates of growth Russia is placed in the second position. The growth rate of the prisoners were highest in Russia over a period of time, but it come down due to liberation of large number of prisoners since 1998. The general pardon of the prisoners in Russia has substantially reduced the ratio of prisoners to its total population that once competed with that of America, to 584 to 100,000. Besides the growth of prisoners in America, presently is astounding. What is shocking, as per The Sentencing Project group endeavoring to promote alternatives to the prison, is the rate of captivity in America is highest in the world. In comparisons to the rates of 169 prisoners for 100,000 populations in Mexico and 116 in Canada, 143 for England and Wales the rates in America is considered too high. (Cass, Report: 1 of Every 75 U.S. Men in Prison)

The report published by the Department of Justice during 2003 emphasized on the 5.6 million American prisoners. (Chaddock, 7) This is considered as the highest ever number in this respect and due to unabated growth of prisoners during past three decades. The comparison of number of prisoners in America presently demonstrates a six fold raise to that of the figures in the 1970's prior to initiation of adopting a policy of getting tougher. This not only demonstrates a record level of growth rate but establish the nation at the highest rank in terms of enforcement and captivity. This unprecedented rise in the growth rate of the prisoners has led United States to leap ahead of Russia to become the world leader, in this respect. In order to put forth a comparative figure it can be laid down that the rate of imprisonment in United States presently is five to eight times higher than that of its contemporary developed countries of Western Europe. (Parkin, 69)

The American prosecution is considered to be ruthless in respect of many crimes. The imprisonment number in these countries is quite comparable however, with exception of West Germany, in case of the violent crimes. In terms of rate of prosecution against the property crimes the United States imprison more wrongdoers in number and also for a longer period of time. In respect of the drug crimes also the same trend is exhibited. (Parkin, 69) The changes brought out in the government policies with regard to stringent drug policies and compulsory minimum sentencing provisions accounts for four fold increase in the prisoners since 1980. Stringent implementation of the prosecution laws in respect of the non-violent drug users exhibited an unprecedented growth rate of American prison population. The present growth rate predicts for more than 7.7 million citizens would have the prison experience by 2010 which would be 3.4% of the total adult population. (Chaddock, 8)

The higher rates of imprisonment is considered to have worsened the problem further by denying the imprisoned youth to undergo the process of rehabilitation, take up jobs, and at last becoming a normal citizen. The children of the imprisoned parents are the worst sufferers. This higher rate of imprisonment is a matter of great concern to all the conscious American citizens irrespective of their political affiliations. The stringent enforcement of drug laws, increasing crime rates, prosecutions involving long sentences give rise to growth of prisoners in America. Accusations have also been made by some analysts of intentional devising of the legal framework and use of the prison system by the United States as a means of social restraints which are surpassing the limits prescribed by the Criminal Justice system. Significant variations in the dimensions of state functionaries and life of the low-educated persons have been noticed in consonance with the rise in American penal system. The increased number of prisoners, long sentences and the frequency of the imprisonment determine the rate of growth of prison population. The increased imprisonment is attributed to economic disparities in terms of high crime rates among poorer group coupled with subsequent captivity and convictions. (Parkin, 69)

The nexus between the higher economic disparities and subsequent growth of prisoners is seen in the causes of criminal offences and social control measures of the criminal justice authorities. The growth of offence rates with the increasing disparity at the lowest levels contributes much towards legal convictions and imprisonment. The economic adversity prevalent among some communities is considered as a threat to the social order and impels the enforcement officials to exercise punitive actions. Deterioration in the standards of living of low-educated American youth during the last three decades is attributed to two major factors. The widespread economic disparities have almost made it impossible to earn with having a secondary education. The stringent American penal system in an environment of falling wages forced the low-skilled and minority fractions susceptible to crime and imprisonment. The correlation of inequality and higher imprisonments are evident ever since the middle of the 70s and continues till now. The economic disparities are associated with inequality in two major ways. (Greenfield, et. al, 35)

The economic adversity increased the crime rate at the lower strata of the society resulting in more detentions, convictions and imprisonment. The criminal law according to the sociologists of punishments do not apply only to regulate crime rate but also to the fraction of the population considered as threat to the normal functioning of its high-class citizens. The positive correlation between the economic disparity and the punitive actions are emphasized much by the researchers. The contemporary rise of penal system is attributed to the imperfection of urban labor markets evident particularly during later part of the after-war periods. The strain theory better establishes the development of criminal attitude among lower class as a consequence of significant emphasis on material success in the society simultaneously concentrating the opportunities with a few for its attainment. This led Merton to argue in support of the moral influence upon the lower class to attain success by hook or crook. The denial of opportunities impels them to resort to criminal offence in order to ensure access to the material prosperity presently the middle class is possessing. (Parkin, 69)

The prevailing racial disparities in a greater magnitude propagating disappointments rather than simple economic adversity, impels more for criminal activities. Contrary to the strain theory propounding the adverse economic conditions as the impelling factor for people to resort to criminal activities the social control theories stresses upon the social measures for avoiding offences. Continuous engagement in economic pursuits, irrespective of the earnings seems to reduce the opportunities for offence. In an environment of imperfect labor markets, the analysts observed the crime rate to be low among the persons engaged in primary sectors guaranteeing reliable, scheduled and monitored jobs in comparison to the secondary labor market characterized by inconsistent employment. Studies on the history of criminal activity reveal gradual rehabilitation of the criminals, through provision of secured employment. (Greenfield, et. al, 33)

The economic adversity also has adverse effects on social control measures in terms of family breakups and infusing the evils of neighborhood poverty. It is also observed that the secured two parent families have better control over the children and restrain them from indulging in juvenile delinquency in contrast to the children of poor families dominated by the single parents that are more susceptible to the criminal activities in absence of adequate resources for their restraint. Studies have revealed family breakups as cause of juvenile delinquency, similarly, the stable marriages similar to regular employment succeeds in rehabilitating the adult criminals refraining them from indulging in criminal activities. Since the rate of stable marriages is less among the economically adverse class, establishment of a correlation between the criminal activities and economic adversity is evident. (Mauer, 5)

The statistical evidence of high crime rates at the lower strata of the society is the testimony for the nexus between the rate of criminal offence and economic disparity. The statistics from police and court records infers that the involvement of lower strata people is more in magnitude than that of the people of middle class. Natural and biological environment also have profound impact on the rate of criminal activity by poor and minority persons irrespective of their class. Recent studies have also revealed other economic factors contributing towards the crime rate. The trends in the criminal rates in consonance with relative studies reveal that the growth in the offence rates are due to widespread unemployment and other causes of idleness. (Greenfield, et. al, 34)