American foreign policy: historical perspectives and contemporary issues

¶ … BRANCHES OF U.S. GOVERNMENT HAS MORE TO SAY IN FOREIGN POLICY DECISION MAKING? WHY?

The Executive Branch has the most 'say' in making foreign policy, as only the president administrates the day-to-day affairs of the nation as a whole, and as he or she is the only nationally elected official. The president negotiates treaties, and acts as head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. But presidential power over foreign affairs is not absolute -- for example, only Congress can declare war. The Senate approves nominations made by the President to the Cabinet, including the Secretaries of State and Defense. The Senate must also ratify all foreign treaties by a two-thirds vote. The Senate has must confirm ambassadors and other senior foreign policy officials. Congress retains control over foreign policy funding, and, of course, the power to raise and equip the military for war. The Judicial Branch perhaps has the least say in foreign policy decision making, as it only interprets American laws, but the Supreme Court has indirectly influenced foreign affairs, such as allowing the Pentagon Papers to be printed during the Vietnam Conflict, deeming them not to be an infringement of U.S. national security. (Biden, 2000)

HAS THERE BEEN ANY CHANGE IN CONGRESSIONAL CHECK ON PRESIDENT'S FOREIGN POLICY MAKING OVER TIME? PROVIDE PROOF ONE WAY OR THE OTHER

In general, the expansion of the civil service bureaucracies, such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) have given modern presidents more power in terms of keeping things secret from congress and the American public -- but modern warfare is also more expensive and relies upon congressional appropriations of funds to supply the Pentagon, the CIA, and the foreign service bureaucracy with the necessary money to operate. Congress does play a crucial role in the formulation of U.S. foreign policy, although President leads and shapes the American agenda in foreign affairs. In fact, theoretically, the President and the Congress under our Constitution are co-equals in terms of their powers branches of government. The support of Congress on foreign policy is often essential to ensuring that a policy will succeed. But presidents in the modern era have occasionally used the power of being Commander in Chief to go to war without the approval of Congress, as did President Truman in 1950 against Korea. Congress did not formally declare war in the case of the Vietnam Conflict although it did give the President unprecedented authority when it passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution. Perhaps to 'make up' for this concession of power in 1973, Congress tried to clarify its role by approving over President Richard Nixon's veto the War Powers Resolution. This established a framework for authorizing uses of force and demanded that a use of force end after 60 days unless Congress had authorized the use. But no President since has recognized the authority of this resolution, arguing that it is an unconstitutional limitation on the President's power as commander. Thus, overall the general trend has been to limit formal congressional power in foreign affairs, while foreign affairs have become more a part of the American national agenda, resulting in the foreign policy of the nation becoming more of a preoccupation with all of its branches of government. (Biden, 2000)

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS BUREAUCRACY IN MAKING U.S. FOREIGN POLICY? EXPLAIN.