American imperialism, reform, and the 1920s

American History

The Forces Shaping American Domestic and Foreign Policy: 1890-1928

The latter half of the 19th century was rife with social and economic changes that would shape the development of American domestic and foreign policy between 1890 and 1928. The policies that would be created were drafted at the confluence of a variety of events. These included the lasting effects of the Civil War and Reconstruction, industrialization, demographic growth, imperialism, and statism. Combined, these factors contributed to the creation of U.S. foreign and domestic policy that was much more proactive and intrusive by 1928 than it had been in 1890.

The social changes that occurred in the wake of the Civil War during the Reconstruction Era are well-documented. Newly emancipated slaves changed social and economic conditions in the South, their freedom crippling a plantation-based agricultural economy. At the same time, however, industrialization was taking powerful hold in the North -- particularly the Northeast. By 1894, the United States had been transformed from a former British holding into the largest manufacturing nation in the world (Johnson 531).

Fueling this industrial growth was an influx of new workers. After the Civil War, the U.S. population stood at about 39 million, with half of those people still living in rural communities. However, by World War I, natural population growth had swollen the nation's population to 100 million, more than 70% of whom now lived in urban areas. Added to that was an incredible influx of immigrants during this period. Between 1890 and 1914 alone, 15 million immigrants arrived on U.S. shores looking for work and to put down roots (Johnson 513-514).

Socially, the United States was in a transition period during the late 19th century as the ideals of Populism flourished and then gave way to Progressivism. The former lasted roughly from 1880 until 1900 and represented the last hurrah of the U.S.' agricultural economy, stressing farmers' ideals. Dissimilarly, Progressivism was driven by educated urban intellectuals who brought new socialist values to American policy during that era (Johnson 607). At the same time, the U.S. -- like so many other nations -- became gripped by imperialist sensibilities. The people and their politicians came to believe that American control should be extended to territorial holdings beyond the lower contiguous states and territories (Johnson 609). As with the already mentioned changes, this facilitated significant changes in domestic and foreign policy.

Overall the tendency in foreign and domestic policy changes was toward extension of the role and authority of the U.S. government at home and abroad. Domestically, policies shifted toward increased statism. Under Woodrow Wilson in particular the U.S. government acquired significant new powers that allowed it to act with greater influence on American soil. The passage of a Constitutional Amendment authorizing an income tax on all Americans cemented more fiduciary power in the federal government and gave it the ability to act with greater impunity. The rise of Progressivism during this era also influenced domestic policy. The threat of Big Business loomed large and Big Government was perceived to be a perfect solution to keep business interests in check (Johnson 634, 636-637).

Industrialization created an enormous working class in the United States, generally impoverished and localized in urban centers. Urban Progressives influenced domestic policy and helped enact new laws and regulations designed to protect the working poor and ensure their well-being. In the short-term, these new policies did have the effect of improving the lot of many in the working class. Over the long-term, these policies helped centralize more power in the hands of the federal government, power which would ultimately be employed in ways contrary to the original Progressive intent.