¶ … rise of the Internet has greatly impacted all areas of society, particularly higher education. Colleges and universities are finding that to stay relevant to their traditional students they have to create online and distance learning programs quickly and effectively to stay up with their learning needs. Eighty-seven percent of four-year colleges offered distance-learning courses in 2004, up from 62% in 1998. According to International Data Corporation, 25% more colleges and universities added distance learning programs between 1998 and 2004. In 2004, 2.2 million degree-seeking students were enrolled in distributed courses. By early 2008, one out of 10 college students will be enrolled in an online degree program, Boston-based market research firm Eduventures estimated last year.
This radical change in education has presented these higher educational institutions with an entirely new threat of competition. Now, students can easily attend "virtual universities" anywhere in the world from the comfort of their home or office chair. Increasingly, adult learners are becoming more savvy about their distance education needs and closely comparing the offerings of one school against another. Schools must develop high-quality online learning experiences that meet the unique educatinal needs and learning styles of their potential adult students. To do so, administration, faculty and web designers need to better identify the most efficient web-based instructional methods.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the efficiency of web-based instructional design and delivery approaches in relationship to unique learning styles and the students other personal characteristics. The study had three main research goals:
1. To find whether there is a distinction between individual learning style and the observed efficiency of web-based curricula.
To find whether there is a distinction between personal characteristics, such as gender, age, socioeconomic class, prior web-based experience, computer anxiety and motivational level, and the observed efficiency of web-based courses.
To find the characteristics, such as collaborative learning activities, student-to-student communication and student-to-teacher interaction, of efficient delivery approaches of web-based curricula as they relate to spcific learning styles.
A total of 87 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in web-based classes at the xxxx, xxxx, xxxx, and xxxx were surveyed for the study.
The selected online courses included marketing, education, religion, anthropology and music theory. The classes that were included in the research were instructed totally online. There was no face-to-face meetings between the instructor and students and no other teaching through different distance education technologies.
Those included in the study accessed a web page that the researcher provided, where they could finish the Flashlight Current Student Inventory and link to Kolb's LSI3. The Current Student Inventory (CSI) questions learners about a number of different instructional and educational practices relating to the use of technology in the classes. Questions were chosen by the researcher from the tool kit in order to design a survey that would effectively measure the proposed hypotheses. The online version of Kolb's LSI3 was utilized to find the participants' unique learning style.
The results of the study were analyzed using SPSS. A Kruskal-Wallis H. nonparametric analysis of variance was utilized to compare results of the web-based course survey among the types of adult learning styles.
The research analyzed the efficiency of instructional design and delivery approaches of university web-based courses as related to unique learning styles and other personal student characteristics. No significant difference was found between learning styles and the observed efficiency of web-based courses. The results of the research may be helpful to distance learning teachers and course designers.
INTRODUCTION
Barely three decades ago, few people expected that the Internet would make such changes in the world of communication, education and commerce and in such a short time frame. As far back as Socrates', schools were located in the large cities. Students who lived in the country, sometimes had to travel hundreds of miles for learning as the stress on education moved from practical everyday skills, moral values and religious training to the development of the mind, intellectualism, speech and critical thinking.
In Athenian times, centuries later, schools based on the Babylonian models had both teachers and pedagogues. Similar to specialist informal educators, the pedagogues were usually family attendants or slaves with supervisory duties. They went to school with the young boys and sat with them in the classroom to represent their fathers
Certain people held the position of specialist educators or tutors. For instance as reported in the Iliad, Achilles' tutor, Phoenix, had the responsibility of instructing his student as a "both a speaker of words and a doer of deeds." In 387 BC, Socrates' student, Plato, instituted the first academy of philosophy. The school was situated near the hill of Kolonos in the gardens next to the gymnasium and park of Akademos, an Athenian hero who revealed where Helen was hidden. This academy developed into an association of learned men who were committed to independent studies, pedagogy, and the cult of the muses (Mitchell, 1999).
Over the centuries, formal education advanced from these academies, to monasteries in the Middle Ages where laymen would learn writing, reading, prayer and contemplation or in the cities where the Church received permission to open schools. The word universitas originally related to the scholastic guilds or corporation of students and maters. In the 15th century, the word university took on the new meaning of a civil- or Church- sanctioned self-regulating community of scholars and instructors. Increasing numbers of students traveled into the cities to these universities. The University of Paris, for example, established in approximately 1150, included the study of theology, canon law, medicine; and arts.
Such universities developed all through Europe and then in other parts of the Western world. During this period, however, teachers normally did not instruct students in their own home. As communication and transportation improved, those students who were located in rural areas and could not attend formal schools could order correspondence materials.
Technology dramatically changed the relationship between students and their schools. First, the development of trains and motorized vehicles allowed students to reach their educational institutions more readily. In addition, inventions such as film, radio and television provided additional ways of learning. The growth of technology has increased the need for students to attend schools of higher learning, whose students enhance technology and once again increase the need for learning.
The Internet, and the development of the web, is once again changing this interaction between the school and the student. Although many students continue to attend the "bricks and mortar" universities, they now also have the opportunity to learn through computerized technology from their work or home office. This allows 24/7 learning and the ability of those who have other responsibilities during the day raising children or working to more efficiently continue their studies. Through web-based distance learning, the students can interface with other students, download materials from the library, communicate with other students, take examinations, and even talk and write back and forth. Students can be right down the street from the educational institution or anywhere else in the world.
According to Willis (1994), distance education is defined as a planned educational event that "takes place when a teacher and student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology, that is audio, video, data and print, is utilized to bridge the gap." Through distance or online learning, educators are able to reach scores of learners who previously were underserved or at a significant disadvantage with traditional learning approaches.
The combination of courses offered through correspondence, television, video, interactive computer media is increasingly meeting the challenge of educating individuals who are disabled, live too far from a university for travel, or do not have the time or resources that fit the normative scheduling of the university structure. Fast-paced technological changes in telecommunications are redefining the boundaries of educational access (Cantelon, 1995). Students now can enroll in classes, pursue degrees and gain their diploma from universities or colleges in other states or countries. No longer does the barrier of time or place exist. Distance learning is breaking down the barriers of the university walls of ivy.
Such a revolutionary technology impacts all levels of education from pre-school to university to corporate (Crow, 1995; Barnard 1997), as well as other areas of society, such as healthcare, entertainment, communication, and socialization and even culture. This is why educators and administrators are analyzing and assessing what is being taught through nontraditional means and how.
As a result, the overall number of online course enrollment at higher education institutions nationwide is significantly on the rise (Sloan Consortium). According to a 2005 survey, online course enrollment increased from 1.98 million in 2003 to 2.35 million in 2004. The study says the increase in online course enrollment is due, in part, to the rising number of institutions offering Web-based classes. Sixty-three percent of schools offering undergraduate courses on the campus also offer undergraduate classes through the Internet. Teachers and students state that the opportunity to do their class work at any time is the most important reason to enroll in Web-based classes as an alternative to traditional lectures. Approximately one in six students enrolled in a college or university, or over 3 million individuals, participated in one or more online course in 2004. This was despite the fact that a leveling off was expected.
Another report for 2005 by Sloan showed that 850,000 more students took distance courses in the fall this year than 2004, an increase of nearly 40%. Once again the slowing or leveling did not come. Many secondary schools are putting considerable resources toward online learning, in expectation that this approach will be more economical than traditional classes and also expanding their reach.
In addition, a survey by the consulting and research firm Eduventures found 50% of the consumers who planned to enroll in a higher education program stated they would instead like to take some of their courses online. About 80% of online students are undergraduates, but are normally older and more apt to be working and have families. However, just about 50% are pursuing online degrees, according to Eduventures. The rest are enrolled in individual online courses or increasingly taking both online along with the more traditional onsite classes.
Distance learning may also be expanding because the distinction between brick and mortar and web classes is blurring. It is not rare even for on-campus courses to put up information, homework assignments and syllibi on the web or to include class discussions as part of the course structure.
The results from the Sloan survey also show that administration and faculty both are increasingly becoming more in favor with online classes. Approximately 62% of chief academic officers stated they believed their students acquired as much or even more learning opportunities from their online courses as their more traditional ones. On the other hand, there were still a large number, 38%, who felt online courses degraded the educational experience, and nearly all of these reported they are not sure distance learning will ever be more widely adopted. They list obstacles such as teachers having to spend more time preparing online courses, distance learning taking more discipline by the students and professors who still are not totally convinced that this is the best way for students to learn.
Students, however, are beginning to expect that most universities will have some online courses available to them, either for part-time or full-time class work. This changing need is noted in a study by Gifford (1994, p. 38)
We are going to move away from the school, the college, and the university as we know it, defined by buildings and physical boundaries, to an institution defined by its capabilities to distribute interactive learning experiences.
To meet student needs, it is necessary to clearly delineate the most effective instructional design elements of distance learning courses (Berge, 1997). It is thus becoming increasingly imperative that administration, faculty and course designers recognize the need for distance learning and develop the appropriate educational elements that will be the most effective online tools with the largest number of students. (Sims & Sims, 1995).
However, distance learners are anything but a homogeneous group. Adult learners have a wide variety of learning needs, personalities, experiences and backgrounds, goals and expectations when taking courses (Galbraith, 1994). Plus, their learning styles differ considerably. A number of studies have indicated that identifying the student's specific learning style and offering the necessary instruction to respond to that style can result in more effective learning (Rainey & Kolb, 1995; Davis, 1994; Grant, 1005; Mickens, 1005; Marshall, 1995; Hsu, 1996; Schroeder, 1996; Hartman, 1995; and Galbraith, 1994). These studies conclude that by improving their understanding of different online learning styles, schools can develop better knowledge-based curricula and opportunities to meet the expectations of a diverse group of learners.
Since student differences will impact how well they learn from any learning approach or methodology, effective teachers and coursework designers have to regularly link conceptual and empirical knowledge about instruction and acquiring knowledge to the ways that they actually do teach and facilitate learning activities (Caffarella & Barnett, 1994). This is the only way that professors and course designers can ensure that the education they provide through online learning meets academic standards. To do so, it is imperative that more studies be conducted to gain the inferences of more acceptable learning approaches for the use of online educational technology in secondary education instruction. These studies will be able to offer suggestions of unique learning style variances related to the choice of the best instructional methods for a wide number of different learning objectives (Wooldridge, 1995).
In the years to come, as larger numbers of colleges and universities expand their distance learning opportunities, there will a continually growing need for acquiring more information about effective web-based teaching approaches. More research is therefore needed to better understand the relationship that exists between communication in the online course, student learning, learner satisfaction and achievement of learning goals and objectives (Motiwalla & Tello, 1999).
The purpose of this present research is to provide additional information on different student learning styles and insights into how to best meet the needs of adult distant learners. The results of this study can be helpful for teachers and instructional developers of online curricula for continually improving the educational value of their distant learning opportunities.
BACKGROUND of PROBLEM
The introduction of the Internet and the development of distance learning through the web has caused a radical change in education (Cantelon, 1995). This change is very apparent when looking at the present numbers of ever-increasing distance education programs in colleges and universities. The National Center for Education Statistics reports that every year scores of higher education institutions are offering distance learning programs, while those that already have a program in place are putting many new courses and distance degree programs on the list. Administrators and instructors are spending a great deal more time to develop and expand their programs (Greene & Meek, 1998.)
There has been many articles written about the many benefits that distance learning offers adult students (Huang, 1996; Biner, 1993; Moller & Draper, 1996; James & Gardner, 1995). Olcutt and Wright (1995) recommend that earlier supporters of distance learning have stressed the technology as the innovation instead of the practice and process of distance instruction. The efficiency of distance learning, similar to any educational program, can be measured by the degree to which it meets its needs. As noted by Olcott (1993), distance learning is able to improve a renewed, although altered, view of the limitations and flexibility of ideas such as academic quality, discipline specialization, academic freedom, curricular control and classroom autonomy.
Aspects that are important to developing an efficient distance learning program are the level of quality of learning, the amount of students who find the course fulfilling their needs, and the price per student hour for both development and delivery (Bork, 1995). Moller and Draper (1996) said that the successful development of distance learning necessitates consecutively strategizing four key factors: effectiveness of learning, the technology used, cost and secondary effects on course participants. Olcott (1993) stresses that it is also essential to motivate faculty members, develop educational resources and establish an incentives program that formally recognizes teachers who participate in the creation and implementation of these courses. Wagner (1993), also notes that it is also important to have the teachers' positive support of distance learning to ensure an overall successful program.
Many types of media, such as telephone wires, microwave radios, cable, satellite dishes, and videotapes are needed to carry one-way transmission of instructional materials and lectures or two-way videoconferencing between faculty and adult learners at various locations. The establishment of computer technology and telecommunication infrastructure has led to a rapid growth in enrollment of web-based classes. Many colleges and universities are starting to include web-based classes in their distance education programs. A large number of institutions of higher education offer complete degree programs through the Internet or video delivery modes where the learners are required to attend campus several times a year, or not at all (Porter, 1997). Considerable research must be conducted on how to use the Internet as a form of delivery for distance education (Berge, 1997). Everyone involved with the development of online programs must be informed on what is the best way to enhance the efficiency of a web-based course that will meet the varied forms of adult learning styles
STATEMENT of the PROBLEM
This research studies the students' observations regarding the efficiency of web-based courses. Universities and colleges are spending a great deal of time and money to develop and implement technology, but many studies stress the need for additional research to be conducted in the areas of distance learning (Charp, 1999; Crow, 1995; Morgan, 1996; Motiwalla & Tello, 1999). Instructors and course designers need to become more aware of the importance of designing distance learning curricula, especially that meets specific learning styles. Students are becoming more demanding and are looking for very particular courses and approaches to education, due to the increased costs of education and the greater demands on their time and resources. They also want a program that will be best for the future career and educational goals. As demands for lifelong learning grow, the need for higher education to become more informal, accessible and learner driven will also grow (Higher Education's Role in the Digital Age, 1999).
Education cannot be burdened by time and space. Students' changing requirements distinctly demonstrate that distance learning has a responsibility and also a special opportunity to enhance a student-centered learning process that responds to the different adult learners (Olcutt & Wright, 1995; Benson & Wright, 1999).
The adult learner of the 21st century demands more access to college and university classes and additional educational information through the Internet (Barnard, 1997; Green, 1999). The potential clients of higher education, the students, are enrolling in the schools with the expectation of acquiring knowledge about technology and to gain more information on technology. Web-based curricula and programs have to be created that meet these expectations and requirements of today's adult learners. Students' changing needs are reflected in the following statement by Gifford (1994, pg. 38): "We are going to move away from the school, the college, and the university as we know it, defined by buildings and physical boundaries, to an institution defined by its capabilities to distribute interactive learning experiences."
Faculty and website designers have to be more aware of and better understand the instructional elements that are most effective with a broad range of students who bring to the classroom varying needs, learning styles and experiences (Sims & Sims, 1995). Additional research is required to determine the most efficient instructional design elements of web-based courses (Berge, 1997).
Studies have shown that by determining a student's learning style and offering necessary instruction to meet that style need can lead to more effective learning (Rainey & Kolb, 1995; Davis, 1994; Grant, 1995; Mickens, 1995; Marshall, 1995; Hsu, 1996; Schroeder, 1996; Hartman, 1995; Galbraith, 1994). Adult learners have a variety of educational experiences, learning styles, personality characteristics, professional and personal backgrounds, reasons for participating and changing emotional states (Galbraith, 1994). By recognizing the special characteristics of adult learners, faculty can use the research gained in developing unique learning choices and plans that better reach a diverse population of learners.
Faculty can become more open to student differences in the classroom when they have more knowledge about the learners' needs and styles. Students differ in a many ways and these distinctions are apt to influence how they learn and gain from a specific instructional method or approach. Caffarella and Barnett (1994) stated that effective adult instructors have to continually connect conceptual and empirical understanding about teaching and learning the way that they can actually educate and facilitate learning programs. More studies are required to know the implications of different learning styles in the creation of distance learning technology for higher education. This research can also make predictions about individual learning style variations as they relate to the choice of the most efficient instructional approaches for different forms of learning goals (Wooldridge, 1995).
In the future, as increasing numbers of colleges and universities offer web-based curricula, the requirement for information regarding efficient Internet teaching practices will continue to expand. More studies are needed to best comprehend how to relate the communication features of the web-based courses, student satisfaction and student achievement of learning objectives (Motiwalla & Tello, 1999). A 1999 report from the Institute of Higher Education Policy summarized the major problems of the research that has been conducted thus far on the efficiency of distance learning classes. The lack of studies on the effect of individual learning styles on student distance education was one of the major areas stressed. More research is required to delineate the Internet educational approaches that are most efficient with students who have differing learning styles and needs.
This study will gather information on student learning styles and efficient web-based course programs. The conclusions can be helpful for faculty and website designers of distance education programs as they work to enhance the efficiency of web-based curricula.
PURPOSE of the STUDY
The aim of this present research was to analyze varying learning styles of adults' and which of these students appear to favor for online distant learning courses. The research was developed around three key research questions:
1. To find whether there is a distinction between individual learning styles and the observed efficiency of web-based curricula.
To find whether there is a distinction between personal characteristics, such as gender, age, socioeconomic class, prior web-based experience, computer anxiety and motivational level, and the observed efficiency of web-based curricula.
3. To find the characteristics, such as collaborative learning activities, student-to-student communication and student-to-teacher interaction, of efficient delivery approaches of web-based curricula as they relate to spcific learning styles.
HYPOTHESES
The parameters of this study were defined by nine hypotheses that are related to the three primary research objectives
H1: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula among students of individual learning styles.
H2a: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula among the age of respondents.
H2b: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula among the gender of respondents
H2c: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula between students with previous web-based course experiences and those new to web-based courses.
H2d: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula among individual levels of computer anxiety.
H3a There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of a web-based curricula among individual motivation levels.
H3b: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of communication with the instructor among individual learning styles within a web-based curricula.
H3c: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of communication with other students among individual learning styles within a web-based curricula.
H3d: There is no significant difference in the observed efficiency of collaborative learning activities among individual learning styles within a web-based curricula
DELIMITATIONS
This study includes three major delimitations: instructor response to web-based curricula; sampling concerns; and technology problems.
A regional sample of xxxxxx students enrolled in credit web-based classes. This population was used due to the researcher's knowledge with the faculty and the distance classes available. Because it only consists of a regional population, the conclusions can only be related to the specific population. Convenience samples are justifiable if they are carefully designed to represent a specific population and discretion is used in the forming of generalizations (Borg & Gall, 1996).
The research relied on web-based curricula that were all run online, where the adult learners and the teachers had no face-to-face meetings. Its emphasis was on web-based curricula in colleges and universities. Other institutions or organizations that offer such curricula were not included. The research only consisted of curricula that included interactive communication with learners through online chat groups or listserves. Faculty who were included in the research had instructed or developed one or more earlier web-based class.
It is understood that the personal input of the instructors concerning the introduction of new educational forms is an essential aspect in the effectiveness of any web-based curricula. However, this topic area was not a variable in the research.
LIMITATIONS of the STUDY
This research did not analyze the way that computer technology impacts the results of web-based curricula. Similar, nothing was included about the coursework design. Variables such as browsers, servers and computer equipment are too varied. Also, instructors use a number of different types of software for their classes with variable results. It is recognized that difficulties with technology, servers and software does impact the way that a learner evaluates the efficiency of a web-based class, and such issues have to be faced when designing distance courses (Levinson, 1990). This research, however, did not include such variables and their impact on the results of the online course.
The research was limited due to the response numbers of learners participating in the chosen web-based curricula. There was a total of 178 online learners who took part in the research. There was a 49% response rate, with 87 students responding to the survey. Adult learners volunteered to be included in the research when their instructor told them about the study. This may represent a biased sample, because it consisted of those volunteering. The assumption cannot be made that those who volunteer will represent the whole population (Best, 1981).
DEFINITIONS of TERMS
This research study included the below terms:
Browser: A software program utilized to view and interface with different types of World Wide Web (web) resources. Netscape and Internet Explorer are two common examples.
Collaboration: How instructors and students share best practices for learning and curricula enhancement.
Computer-mediated instruction: Computer technology that is used for information distribution.
Distance learning/Distance education: An educational form, typically college-or university-level, where students work on their own at home or at the office and interface with instructors and other students through e-mail, electronic forums, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, chat rooms, bulletin boards, instant messaging and other forms of computer-based communication. Although some educators make a distinction between distance learning and distance education, this paper will interchangeably use distance learning, distance education, online learning, web-based learning and online education.
Efficiency. In this research, efficiency was defined as being able to bring about an expected effect or impact that was assessed by the learner's initial response. The Flashlight CSI survey tool was used to measure the degree of efficiency.
Efficient web-based course: This was defined as meeting one or more of a number of different factors: promote positive academic outcomes, support student needs, achieve the stated objectives of the course, meet expected standards of academic course.
E-mail: Using computer networks to send electronic messages.
Hypermedia: A computer-based information retrieval system to allow an online computer user to gain or provide access to texts, audio and video recordings, photographs, and computer graphics related to a specific topic.
Hypertext: A computer-based text retrieval system that allows web users to access specific locations on webpages or other electronic documents by clicking on links within documents.
Internet: An interconnected system HTMLCONTROL HTMLInlineSoundCtl.1 of networks that connects computers around the world via the TCP/IP protocol.
Learning Style: A specific way that a person can learn. It is now thought that most people favor some specific approach of interacting with, taking in, and processing information or stimuli. This research will use Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI), which is one of the better known and accepted of over 70 different proposed learning styles instruments.
Satisfaction: The feeling of being pleased, positive about the curricula results.
World Wide Web (Web): A part of the Internet that includes linked text, image, sound, and video documents. Most of distance learning uses the web for course delivery.
Web-based curricula: Course(s) included in a series of classes that are part of a degree program.
ASSUMPTIONS
This research made these primary assumptions:
Every web-based curricula researched follows the same standards that are applicable to that university or college.
The learners follow any prerequisites delineated for the web-based curricula in which they enrolled and have made the correct preparations that meet the course requirements.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
During the past decade, the number of distance learning programs has grown significantly due to the rapid changes in technology and the resulting student demands. Now it is becoming more possible for a larger population of learners of varying ages, educational levels, professions and locations to enroll in higher education. Adult students are in need of classes that conform to their schedule, location and educational needs. Earlier studies proved that there is no significant difference between the effectiveness of distance and traditional learning. Web-based curricula are still in their infancy, with instructors attempting different ways to design and develop their courses. There are not many studies that look at the design of the course and how it impacts the learning style of the adult students. Thus, additional studies are needed on the efficiency of these online courses and the educational approaches that appear to be most effective with different learning styles and adult student personal characteristics.
Chapter two reviews the current literature. It includes an overview of distance learning, information on Knowles' theory of androgogy and how it relates to the need for interactivity, traditional vs. online education, the maturation of distance learning, structural design, Internet overview, developing online courses, defining efficiency, and learning styles.
REVIEW of LITERATURE
The literature review provides a foundation for the rationale of the study of the effect on adult learning styles regarding the efficiency of web-based curricula. It also covers an overview of the development of distance learning and the Internet and the changes that these brought to education, instructional design in developing online courses, experiential learning theory, defining efficiency of curricula and learning styles and how they relate to online learning, the impact of change and tools for educational evaluation purposes. In addition, it provides an understanding of Kolb's learning style theory that was used in the research.
INTRODUCTION
This review of literature was conducted through online and onsite searches. The electronic library catalog available at the university was very useful in narrowing down the searches to areas such as learning styles theory, online education, distance education, web-based instruction, computer-mediated courses, and web-based curricula. In addition, web academic searches for scholarly journals and government reports on the subject provided much information.
The Worldwide Growth of Distance Learning
History of Distance Learning
The definition of distance education according to Willis (1994) is any planned educational activity that occurs when an instructor and a student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology such as audio, video, data and print are utilized to bridge the instructional gap. Distance learning through modern forms of technology originally began with television. The British Open University started providing a number of different courses to the general public through the broadcast TV in the 1960s. Each program, which cost almost one million dollars to broadcast, was professionally taught by a professor in his or her field of endeavor. The new approach radicalized education by making secondary education more available to all economic classes. Thousands of students could now take courses with close faculty involvement. Every year, the number of students grew. (McNeil, 1977). With the arrival of the Internet in the 1990s, the Open University now offered students different options of gaining their personalized education away from the campus. Students could pursue a university degree without ever attending a traditional academic classroom. The Open University's experimentation set the model of what has since become a major aspect of instructional implementation.
The United States was also introducing its own form of televised education. New York University aired the first university course for credit. The series, Sunrise Semester was first produced by CBS-TV in 1957 also as an experiment, but ran for nearly a quarter of a century. The first course series was "Comparative Literature 10: From Stendhal to Hemingway," which was taught by Floyd Zulli, Jr., an assistant professor of romance languages at the College of Arts and Science. The three-point course covered the novel's development from Stendhal's the Red and the Black to Hemingway's the Sun Also Rises. In order to gain college credit, 177 students paid $25.00 per point. Over 700 students applied and about 120,000 others watched the course noncredit (Cory, 1982).
One of the earliest innovators in distance learning, Glen R. Jones, envisioned a cable network for academically serve millions of students. Mind Extension University, active throughout the 1970's and 1980's, role modeled best approaches for registration, grading, record keeping and book delivery. The original mission was to deliver courses with graduate and undergraduate credit from a number of different universities, but it evolved into its own degree granting institution and became the first online educational entity to receive official accreditation from the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges after a thorough examination of courses and processes. Jones International University, University of the Web, presently offers a Bachelor of Arts in Business Communication, a Master of Arts in Business Communications and a Master of Business Administration, as well as sixteen shorter-term certificate programs (Inabeth, 2000).
Such programs quickly accelerated worldwide with the arrival of the World Wide Web, which greatly enhanced technological efficiency. According to the Institute of Education Sciences (IES, 2003), U.S. Department of Education, during the 2000 to 2001, 12-month, academic school year, 56% of all two-year and four-year Title IV-eligible, degree-granting institutions offered distance education courses for any level or audience -- "that is courses designed for all students, including elementary and secondary, college, adult education, and continuing and professional education.
IES (2003) also found that 12% of all institutions expect to begin providing distance education courses over the next three years; 31% did not offer distance education courses in 2000 to 2001, nor planned to do so in the next three years. Public institutions were more apt to develop distance education curricula than were private ones. In this same year, 90% of public two-year and 89% of public four-year institutions developed distance education courses, compared with 16% of private 2-year and 40% of private 4-year institutions.
On a secondary level, 55% of all two-year and four-year institutions at the college-level offered credit-granting distance education courses at either the undergraduate or graduate/first-professional level: this included 48% of institutions at the undergraduate level and 22% of all institutions at the graduate level. (IES, 2003).
This growth trend is expected to continue exponentially. Distance learning will grow times faster than on-campus growth over the next decade, according to "2006 State of Continuing Education Marketing: How Does Your University Size Up?," a report by Penn State University Office of Outreach Marketing and Communications and University Continuing Education Association.
Studies by Cantelon (1995) find that earlier online courses primarily covered the social sciences in public administration and business as well as the humanities, due to the problems associated with laboratory and studio needs for the arts and sciences. However, as technology advances, this too is changing. Increasingly, schools are also offering hands-on instructional options and adapting their programs to meet the specialized needs of their adult learners who are pursuing a degree, certification, licensing and career development.
Knowles' Theory of Androgogy in Relationship to Distance Education
Educator Malcolm Knowles believed that children and adults learn differently and pursued this through his research studies. His results led to conclusions about the construction and direction required for adult education. He brought these elements together in his theory of andragogy.
In this theory, Knowles stresses that adults expect to assume responsibility for decisions and are self-directed. Therefore, it was necessary for adult learning programs to be designed in this manner. Andragogy assumes that adults need to know why they need to learn something; need to learn experientially; approach learning as problem-solving, and; learn best when the topic is of immediate value. Specifically, andragogy means that adult instruction must primarily focus on the process instead of the content being taught. Most helpful are strategies such as, simulations, self-evaluation, case studies and role playing. In this case, instructors participate as a facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader (Knowles, 1970). This approach is more similar to distance learning instructional approaches than the traditional classroom setting.
Every adult learner approaches the learning experience with a different educational, psychological and cultural background, including varying career and educational objectives, learning styles, expectations, motivations and values. All which can impact the decision of the desired learning experience (Bork, 1995). According to Kasworm and Yao (1995), adult learning needs to be a process that is interactive and constructive and learning objectives need to be defined in relationship to global, interactive and meta-cognitive actions. For example, they recommend that distance learning be developed in a way that allows adult learners to have a more significant role in the construction and utilization of autonomous and self-directed educational strategies.
As the number and types of adult distance learners grow, it will be essential to clearly delineate their specialized educational requirements and plan various options to meet their needs (Maxwell 1995). Every person has a unique learning styles and history of learning (Bork, 1995), which will influence preferences in educational approaches and delivery. For some adults, the bricks and mortar approach to learning, such as attending lectures and class discussions on campus, is not seen as the best way for them to learn. Many adult students would rather have self-direction, hands-on activities, question-and-answer sessions, audio or video instead of straight text, direct observation of an experiment, and involvement in a process taking place.
Adults may find the web's interactive technology available for distance learning more suited to their learning needs (Porter, 1997). Adults can find the courses that relate to their specific needs for interactivity, since some media are more interactive and certain subject areas necessitate more of a traditional approach to learning. Porter adds that well-designed distance education classes can offer learners a considerable variety of choices, so individuals will be able to find the necessary combination of interaction and learning style that will enhance their learning capacity.
Research findings on student requirements for interaction have suggested several guidelines for instructors who are developing distance learning courses: 1) Students value timely feedback on course assignments, exams, and projects (Egan, et al., 1991);
2) Learners gain considerably through their participation in small discussion groups, which offer support and motivation as well as additional feedback on course work. Also, these groups enhance the knowledge that if help it is readily available when needed;
3) Adult students are more encouraged with regular contact with the instructor. More structured contact could be used as a motivational tool (Coldeway, et al., 1980).
Similarly, use of on-site facilitators who develop a personal rapport with learners and are acquainted with the equipment and course materials can increase student satisfaction (Burge & Howard, 1990) and 4) Using available technologies such as telephones, computers and fax machines, can also provide learner assistance and interaction opportunities.
As a result of this need for interactivity, more distance education systems now include a high degree of interactivity between instructor and learner, even in rural and isolated communities separated by hundreds of miles. The Office of Technology Assessment emphasizes the importance of interactivity: Distance learning gives students the opportunity to hear and perhaps even see teachers, in addition to helping teachers to respond to their students' concerns and questions (U.S.. Congress, 1988). Also, virtual learning communities with students in the same class or study group can be formed worldwide, and they can contact each other at any time to share observations, data, and ideas (VanderVen, 1994; Wolfe, 1994).
Coincidentally, even with the opportunity of distance education, many people still prefer a traditional classroom-based learning experience. This is because this setting offers more opportunity for personal interaction and relationship building in a familiar environment. While one can develop relationships through distance learning, a number of individuals find it more difficult when there is just text and written communication. Human interpersonal communication consists of body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and other similar factors. In a non-interactive online environment, most of this personal communication is lost and the traditional classroom setting is more appealing. This is another pertinent reason for increasing interactivity in the distant learning situation.
Traditional Classroom vs. Distance Learning
Numerous research studies conclude that there is no significant difference between the traditional learning and online learning media. Schlosser and Anderson (1997), for example, state that "students learn equally well from lessons delivered with any medium, face-to-face or at a distance." They argue that further research is not needed, since studies have already shown that students learning at a distance have the potential to learn the equivalent to students attending traditional courses.
Similarly, Moore and Kearsley (1996) have conducted a literature review of distance learning studies dating back 50 years, which compared grades, test scores, retention and job performance of those taught face-to-face vs. those taught online. The researchers find once again that there is no significant difference between the two educational approaches, despite the content, students' educational level, or type of media. Thus, one can conclude there is not sufficient evidence to support the idea that the optimum delivery method is classroom instruction, distance learning can be as effective as a learning means as classroom instruction, the lack of face-to-face communication is not, alone, injurious to learning, and it is the way that a class is designed, delivered and conducted, not if it is face-to-face or at a distance, that will make it effective or ineffective.
Other conclusions drawn from research suggest that:
Achievement on a variety of tests that course instructors administrated seems to be higher for distant learners as opposed to traditional students (Souder, 1993). However there appears to be no significant difference in positive attitudes toward course material between online learning and traditional education (Martin & Rainey, 1993).
Students perceive that conventional instruction is more organized and clearly presented than distance education (Egan, et al., 1991).
An instructor's traditional teaching method is often improved through the organization and reflection needed to effectively teach at a distance.
Future research needs to focus on the critical factor in determining student achievement: the design of instruction itself (Whittington, 1987). In terms of this dissertation, this conclusion is the most essential.
One of the main advantages of distance education is that learners not only gain knowledge and experiences about their major, but can also acquire more proficiency in the use of technology (Higher Education's Role in the Digital Age, 1999; Kearsley, et. al, 1995; Wagner, 1993). Today's job market is highly competitive and demands individuals who understand and know how to use state-of-the-art technology in their organizations. Distance learning will provide this capability.
Distance Learning Growth and Maturity
Although distance learning through the Internet has been found to overall provide as well as of an education as traditional learning, it is still in its infancy and much has yet to be learned about ways to improve delivery and eliminate factors that reduce effectiveness of instruction.
New technologies have the ability to radically alter education (Crow, 1995)
Stability and tradition are important to many people, so many continue to see universities as a physical location. However, distance learning is expanding this idea into a discussion about "universities without walls." The concept of "virtual university" connotes a learning "campus" where there are no walls or physical constructions and students may never meet face-to-face with their instructor or other students (Talley, 1997; Cantelon, 1995).
Technology offers a viable alternative for continued learning throughout ones adult life, but critics of this "virtual university" believe that distance study could reduce the quality of higher education (Brand, 1995). Brand believes that distance learning separates the integrated whole of the university and, as a result, sacrifices research and service to the instructional delivery component. He argues that virtual learning will find it difficult to offer equal hands-on lab instruction and the essential development of interpersonal communication skills that are important aspects of any career path. He does say, however, that distance learning offers one critical benefit -- "access to higher education for those who may not have such access. Further, although such feedback may be valid, it does not reduce the fact that public policymakers are mandating institutional efficiency and enhanced learning access (Hurst, 1998).
Another aspect of online education is enabling student access and mobility. Proponents of distance learning say that online education can greatly expand learners' access to post-secondary education and a wide range of information. In addition, it offers an extremely flexible opportunity, allowing learners to choose where, when, and what they learn at their own pace.
However, not all academics support this attribute, since some research shows that low income groups, minorities, and less educated individuals are less likely to have computer access for online study. Students traditionally excluded from post-secondary education are the most dependent on face-to-face interaction and the least able to deal with the frustration and isolation of web-based distance education. It is necessary, stresses Brogden (2002), that online students also have access to the same services provided to those who attend campus classes, such as libraries, registration and orientation, academic advising, resources, financial aid, counseling/career services and technology access.
Whenever something new is developed in education, it results in entirely different concerns and challenges. The rise of new technology is no different. In adult education, such issues as equity, fairness and impact on individuals of all backgrounds is a necessary concern. According to Galbraith (1990), one of the major problems in addressing such issues is that technology is continually changing -- "and at a very rapid pace -- "for the better. With time, there is more knowledge about usage, more variety, decreasing cots, increasing diffusion and enhanced usage. Many people who were not able to use this technology in he past now or will soon have improved access. It appears that this trend will continue in the future (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991).
Hurst (1998) notes that the fast-paced rise of electronic technology, particularly in the home and business offices, is quickly changing the expectations that students have for secondary educational institutions. Increasingly, they want computers to be an essential aspect of the coursework across all of the curricula and free computer access to teachers and student services. Says Peck and Dorricott (1994), web-based instruction is already revolutionizing how students work, think, and access information.
Such new student expectations and demands necessitate colleges and universities to develop affordable high-quality distance learning opportunities for availability worldwide. Huang (1996) recommends that web-based classes provide the flexibility and efficiency of computer-assisted education in addition to the individual specialization and assistance of instructor-guided learning that students want. He states that traditional institutions of higher learning, teachers and students have to ready themselves with the instruments and skills required to meet the demands and opportunities of web educational programming.
Other educators forecast that technology applications at universities and colleges will become the way of the future (Daugherty & Funke, 1998; Talley, 1997; Olcutt & Wright, 1995). Higher education continues to evolve, since consumer needs are changing and competition for students is increasing. Daugherty and Funke (1998) recommend that: "institutions must be driven to some extent by the needs and demands of the consumer. To satisfy unique needs of the growing numbers of nontraditional students and make graduate degrees more attractive and feasible, the availability of online courses and distance learning will be essential."
Adult learners of all backgrounds will increasingly request a more opportunistic educational system that is continually in the business of instructing and training an effectively prepared workforce for the 21st century. Web-based courses can provide an efficient method for meeting these educational demands (Daugherty & Funke, 1998).
As technology becomes more interactive, it will allow more of a variety of courses accessible to a greater number of students. As more learners request such access to high-quality education and degree programs, university and college administration and faculty will need to conduct research that compares different approaches of distance learning to determine what kinds of learning styles are most compatible with what types of interactive instructional technology. These studies will help institutions design and implement that are best to meet the variety of student needs.
Inabeth Miller, past president of the United States Distance Learning Association stresses that presently nothing is defined regarding the quality of education in these online courses. "There is no stamp of approval that acts as a guidepost for colleges and universities ready to step into an electronic era. There are few recognized standards or guidelines for either individual courses or comprehensive programs" (2001, p. 18). Her personal criteria would include content as well as instructional strategies, audio and video production, and personal interaction with the computer screen, in addition to assignments and assessment by faculty and fellow students. Also, the quality functional aspects of registration, tuition, chats, threaded discussions, presentation ability, portfolio management, testing, grading, library and records management are all necessary to have a successfully implemented program.
Collison, et al. (2000) outlines such factors necessary for quality online learning, such as how to move conversation from "wallowing in the shallows" to "reasoned discourse." Inabeth (2000, pg. 20) adds that "few have stopped think about how interaction is effectively achieved and how the teacher or moderator truly affects the learning process. It is an important area for understanding if online courses are to rise above the negligible and trivial state that most currently occupy. Much deeper thinking is necessary if we are to create a new paradigm for distance learning."
In the meantime, students need to ask the following questions when deciding to take courses or an entire degree program online should begin by asking quantitative questions about the institution:
How many courses does the institution offer?
Does the institution specialize in your particular area of interest?
How many years has the program been running?
How many faculty are teaching in the program?
How much training do the teachers get, if any?
How many students are in a class?
How often is it necessary to participate actively?
What is the dropout rate?
How long is each session?
How many credits do you need for a degree?
How much does it cost?
Is there an online library?
Is the program accredited?
What technology is being used? (Miller & Schlosberg, 1997)
Collis (1997) also recognizes that online availability will have varying degrees of what she calls "batches of wine." She notes that 1) Not every batch of new wine will mature into a great vintage; 2) Not all forms of new wine will be valued over time; 3) Some variants of new wine will achieve no more than local consumption; 4) Some variants of new wine will not last long enough to even ferment; and 5) Not everyone wants to drink wine. The virtual campus is relatively new and unproven. Not only are numerous vintages of the virtual campus presently on the market, but there is little consistency in quality or form.
Instructional Design of Online Courses
Although there is not yet a standard that institutions are following in regards to online education, Brogden and Couros offer suggestions of what all virtual environments need to be successful learning tools. Then note that when considering the pedagogical implications of distance learning, it is essential to assess the suitability of the course offerings to the medium. For example, Porter (1997) maintains that "almost any course can be taught through distance learning, but not every course can be taught well in the distance learning environment. Each course should be considered individually as to its suitability to be offered through distance learning." It is critical, therefore, to engage in sound pedagogical practices and recognize that not all courses will be best served by the web-based learning approach.
Collis adds that in any education model, basic principles of good practice must be considered: "A good teacher who prepares good lectures and is effective in his class presentations should continue to exercise these skills, this craft, but can be even more effective with the addition of tele-learning techniques." These characteristics of good teaching include "being a good teacher, such as communicating personally with one's students, giving personal feedback, and keeping one's courses up-to-date and stimulating." While these attributes have no dependent link to distance learning, all may be enhanced by the online environment. That is, good teachers can adapt and improve with technology.
Earlier (1987), Chickering and Gamson proposed seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. These principles are just as applicable to online learning as traditional education: 1) encourages student-faculty contact; 2) promotes cooperation among students; 3) supports active learning; 4) gives prompt feedback;
5) emphasizes time on task; 6) communicates high expectations, and 7) respects diverse talents and ways of learning.
Since then, these researchers revisited the seven principles in terms of how technology can enhance and enable instruction in modern-day higher education. Their conclusions include issues such as asynchronous and synchronous technologies, the role of technologies in active learning, utilizing simulations as a learning tool, time management, the place of technology in offering prompt feedback, and connectedness. Once again, the principles of good practice in the traditional campus are the same in the distance learning environment. It is the right application of technology that supports and improves practice. Technology can only enhance quality pedagogical practice. Those procedures that result in poor teaching practices in a traditional campus will not be enhanced by teaching online. As Bates (1995) cautions, "Good teaching may overcome a poor choice in the use of technology, but technology will never save bad teaching; usually it makes it worse."
The more acquainted instructors become with the design and delivery process of distance learning, the more effective their presentations. To do so, it is important that they have the training in instructional design, strategies for using various technologies such as audio and video, ways of diversifying presentations, choosing a variety of student-teacher communication and interactions, finding different relevant situations and examples, and assessing the learning level of distant students.
Teachers also require considerable hands-on experience developing and delivering courses that utilize audio, video, graphics, animation as well as text in front of a live audience. Approaches such as using fewer overheads and additional moving video, interspersing "talking heads" with videos of sites, showing hands-on experiments, incorporating text and graphic art, and applying other guidelines for effective varied production are also essential (Willis, 1993).
It is also advantageous to train website designers and facilitators in hands-on practice with the equipment they need to use. Sherry and Morse (1995) found that individuals who had structured training were more comfortable with the equipment and thus could better engage students in the learning process.
Phipps (1998) raises the issue of how to determine the quality of distance learning. Perhaps other vehicles besides traditional education should be used as a measuring stick of performance. He says that presently there is no universal agreement as to quality within the higher education community. Discussions continue regarding "the relative merits of input variables, process variables, and outputs as they relate to student learning and institutional effectiveness" (pg. 4). It is convenient, perhaps too convenient, to use traditional higher education as the benchmark to judge technology-mediated distance learning. By doing such, there is an implicit assumption that traditional higher education is the paragon of quality and deviation from this model represents "less" quality. "To be sure," Phipps notes, "there is something to be said about the rich culture of higher education. On the other hand, using the status quo as a framework for evaluation of quality of technology-mediated distance learning leaves little room for realizing the enormous potential and impact of information technology" (pg. 3).
Using the Internet/Web in Adult Learning
History of the Internet
Individuals who are not familiar with the Internet imagine a stand-alone technology such as a television. However, although technically the Internet is a maze of computers, wires and programming, it is actually a myriad of different communication media such as the World Wide Web, newsgroups, share groups, blogs, and e-mail. It is defined technically as a wide area network that connects one computer to another.
Just as Sputnik heralded in a new space era, the Internet has completely impacted telecommunications and all of society. Through the Internet people all over the world can make travel reservations, order products, listen to music, watch videos, find information on nutritional or health issues, read magazine or newspaper articles or get data from the stock exchange. Jerold Apps (1994), an adult educator, calls this time an "emerging age," where the industrial age is being replaced by a new social era. Dyson (1997), argues that although the Internet, per se, does not actually do very much, it is a powerful tool that is a source of information and a way for individuals to organize themselves, find helpful information and be entertained. Educational institutions, involved for decades in building campus "communities," will be actively constructing "virtual or electronic communities" (Starr, 1998).
According to the Consumer Technology Index, a comprehensive research effort made available by Computer Intelligence Infocorp that tracks personal computer use, there are about 15 million Internet users in the U.S., 11 million who use it primarily for e-mail. The next most popular uses are 62% for web browsing, 35% for newsgroups and 23% for telnet and ftp (Killen, et. al., 1996).
According to Nielson/Net Ratings, the average global Internet user spends 11 hours and 24 minutes online per month. The average user in the United States spends more than twice that amount of time online: on average, 25 hours and 25 minutes at home and 74 hours and 26 minutes at work.
According to the Computer Industry Almanac, the worldwide number of Internet users surpassed one billion in 2005 -- "up from only 45 million in 1995 and 420 million in 2000. The two billion Internet users milestone is expected in 2011. Much of current and future Internet user growth is coming from populous countries such as China, India, Brazil, Russia and Indonesia. Over the next ten years, many Internet users will be supplementing PC Internet usage with Smartphone and mobile device Internet usage. The U.S. continues to lead with nearly 200 million Internet users at year-end 2005.
Internet/Web's Role in Present and Future Instruction program called the Campus Computing Project (Green, 2000) studies the use of information technology at U.S. colleges and universities. It analyzes both qualitative and quantitative research results to provide valuable information to administrators, faculty and others involved with information technology. A 2000 survey of 600 American institutions of higher education showed that the amount of colleges that are including technology in the classroom is increasing steadily. Growing numbers of faculty are using e-mail and the web in their courses. About 59% of all college courses used e-mail in 2000, which was a significant increase from 20% in 1995. Similarly, about 43% of college courses used web resources as a component of the syllabus, which was a major rise from 11% in 1995.
The major rise in the schools is with wireless connections for their laptops and computers, which shows the tremendous growth of Internet use on campus. The Campus Computing Project's 2006 report notes that wireless networks now reach fully half (51.2%) of college classrooms compared to just over two-fifths (42.7%) in 2005 and a third (31.1%) in 2004. Further, over than two-thirds (68.8%) of the 600 campuses have a strategic plan for deploying wireless as of fall 2006, up from 64.0% in 2005 and 53.3% in 2004. Such growth is happening worldwide. According to Cantelon (1995), global-wide educators are connected on a daily basis, never experienced before.
Development of Distance Learning Courses
Although in distance learning individuals are never in the same room as the instructors or other students, the correct choice of instructional media and development of communication channels can greatly enhance the students' learning. Porter (1997) argues that any distance learning "classroom" needs to provide the same effective learning environment regardless of the technology utilized. The following should be used in any effective course: 1) Tools easily available to students as needed; 2) an expectation for a situation that is learning conducive; 3) an educational forum for students and instructors to share and exchange thoughts; 4) the opportunity for students to test their knowledge, experiment, complete tasks and apply the information learned; 5) the means for performance evaluation; 6) a secure environment in which to learn.
Within Web-based courses, there are a number of different instructional design methods. One of the most intriguing aspects of the Internet is its capabilities for multimedia and hypertext. The web offers a wealth of information, entertainment and data in many different forms, such as video, music, graphics and photographs. A link can travel to a picture, another relevant site, or a definition. It can bring up information that could be stored on a server across the world.
The president and founder of Virtual Online University, William Painter, says that "hyperlearning" is making education much more efficient (Lyons, 1995). Normally, when a person reads a book, the amount of information acquired in an hour is based on the reading speed. However, with web hypertext links and multimedia, in the same amount of time that same individual may move into a number of different topics of interest. According to Painter, before the printing press, people learned by making connections between pieces of information. Thus, the web is actually an easier learner directed method of learning. Porter (1997) adds that being able to retrieve as much information as one wants, in whatever order wanted, alters the educational process from linear to nonlinear. In a nonlinear approach, students can pursue their own ideas. This nonlinear thinking through web links can considerably further self-directed education. Studies show that hypertext and multimedia are very useful in responding to the variety of student learning styles (Rasmusen, 1996; Grant, 1995; Gupta, 1995; Krause, 1996; & Hsu, 1996).
Porter (1997) also reports that increasing numbers of new learners, instructors and educators are starting to use the Internet because of its interactive and multimedia capabilities. Educators appreciate the fact that they can find informational materials on a website and be able to download it at any time. In addition, the Internet allows for a greater amount of information give-and-take than using other communication vehicles, because the information is always easily available as is interconnectivity with other users. In addition, it is very easy to readily add new information to a website without the past concerns of time delays of printing and distribution. Rather than weeks, students can have this new information in real time. or, a professor can put another hyperlink on his or her website. Learners can click on that link for additional information, rather than the teacher making a copy of the material for each student in the class. Further, students can relate personally with one another through instant messaging, e-mail, chat groups, discussion sessions and the like. These offer an excellent way to share assignments, lessons and papers with the whole class.
According to Bork (1995), distance learners are more reliant on the course materials than they are on the actual technology that provides that information. It is essential that thorough preparation takes place for the efficient interaction between the learners and the teacher. Online courses need to consist of teacher and student interaction availability through such means as e-mail, discussion groups, and threaded loop conversations. Students must have the ability for both synchronous, real time such as instant messaging, and asynchronous, delayed time including e-mail, interaction (Higgins, 1991). This will give them the opportunity for a variety of different forms of interaction.
According to Hiltz (1990), collaborative learning is a process where teachers and students can both be actively involved in the educational process. Instead of something is delivered to students as a part of this process, knowledge actually is a result of participatory discussions among those who want to better understand and use those ideas and tools. Individuals developing online courses may find collaboration challenging, because it has to be very dynamic as well as globally of interest. As Granott states (1993), collaboration is spontaneity of thought, synchronicity of feedback and simultaneity of communication. An environment that promotes collaboration allows "the participants to co-construct their knowledge by continuously sharing their ways of understanding. Their knowledge structures, therefore, evolve simultaneously."
In this case, the opportunity for collaboration is hindered by the importance that distance courses put on flexibility. A great deal of collaboration was hardly ever noticed as part of the asynchronous study group interactions in the research of electronically distributed learning environments (Carr, 1998). In fact, this degree of interpersonal communication may even be hard to achieve in a traditional learning environment. Design and development of such collaborative learning approaches in distant education can be very rewarding, since students can regularly share their knowledge about tests, assignments, papers and other materials with everyone else in the class through a website or listserve. In a survey of 44 distant learning university teachers, Berg (1997) found the instructional strategies of teacher/student feedback, collaboration and self-reflection as essential aspects of efficient web-based courses. The literature review offered positive support of the how important these factors are in the development of high-quality web-based classes.
Efficiency in Web-based Curricula better understanding of the efficiency of web-based courses will help instructors and web designers develop and implement classes that meet the specific needs of their learners and the overall curricula objectives. Further, a more thorough knowledge of efficiency of web-based instruction will enhance the ultimate results of the learning. One of the most noteworthy models for measuring effectiveness of was formulated by the United States training expert Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959 for the workplace. The first stage of Kirkpatrick's model is "reaction," which essentially means measuring the amount of satisfaction the students have with their instruction. The second level is "testing," or determining what was actually learned by the students. The third level, which is more complex, is called "transfer." In this case, Kirkpatrick is suggesting that the behavior of the learners should be assessed to help establish whether their performance has been enhanced following training at a more permanent, level of behavior. The final level of Kirkpatrick's model is called "organizational results" and analysis of the financial effect of the instruction on the bottom line of the company after six months to two years.
Since the development of the Internet and web, there have been a number of other theories on how to best test the efficiency of the instruction. As noted above, most of these studies found that there was no difference in the degree of effectiveness of traditional vs. online instruction.
Researchers Motiwalla and Tello (2000) found that students had high levels of satisfaction with asynchronous Web-based learning. They determined that students appreciated the flexibility of being able to access the course anytime and anywhere they wanted. Likewise Wegner et al. (1999) reported that 21% of the learners in their study based on a problem-based Web-course said that an added advantage was the convenience of not having to travel and having flexible study hours.
The results from research by Matuga (2001), which used a team-based instructional design in a web-based undergraduate social science class, concluded that learners felt they had to motivate themselves differently for an online course (Matuga, 2001). Strategies utilized within regular classroom environments did not seem to work in Web-based courses as well. For example, one student noted: "I have learned that self-motivation is something that I really have to work on when I am really busy with lots of things. It is really easy to say that I will do this stuff tomorrow, and then never do it tomorrow because I do not have a classroom to go to. I think I will focus on why I want to learn this stuff, rather than just getting it over with because it is a requirement for my major."
Carswell (2000) contrasted a traditional Open University class and another version of the class using the Internet for communication. The learners believed they gained constructive experience by using the Internet and its associated tools. While such knowledge was not an actual course goal, it was a helpful consequence. Collins (2000) similarly found that students who participated in a web-assisted biology course said that they had gained additional experience with the Internet and e-mail. On the other hand, in a study with older students who were computer-na ve, Horvath and Teles (1999) found that their first encounters with the computer-mediated web-assisted courses produced high anxiety levels. The researchers concluded that help of peers and an instructor is not a substitute for an intuitive interface design. Learner problems were caused by the lack of requisite skills to determine the problem and/or the lack of knowledge and skills about computers to solve the problem. In addition, the anxiety actually hindered rational behavior instead of motivating it. The learners felt embarrassed in response to these problems (Carswell, 2000).
Students vary considerably in their feelings about a web-based course, just as they do about a traditional one, concluded Hislop (2000). Although a learner's behavior may change with time because of outside factors, such as their interest in a course, how busy they are at work, their amount of experience with the topic, however, there is normally some normal behavior patterns that appear common to all students. Hislop (2000) named these behaviors in the following way:
Leading students are visible online early and often. They often post one of the first responses to a discussion topic and contribute regularly. They respond to postings by the teacher and other students. The activity of the leading students may be key to the overall activity level of the class
Lucid students write with special clarity and add real value not just volume or noise to the class. Other class participants are apt to read lucid student postings, because they have something worth saying and in an easy to understand manner.
Lively students bring humor to the class. They may also be important in helping form and maintain a sense of online community.
Lurking students are present but invisible. They follow class activities, but do not participate.
Listless students only participate a small amount, since they are unmotivated and seem immune to efforts to encourage more class participation.
Lgging students are always behind the rest of the class and contribute at the last minute or not at all.
Lost students are missing in action: They either do not participate in the class at all or contribute off the topic.
Carswell (2000) noted that the Internet-based conferences in his research attracted a large number of "lurkers," because of confusion of roles, unclear expectations, and not wanting to participate. Motiwalla and Tello (2000) stated that about a quarter of their students were not happy with the computer-mediated component and another 36% were neutral. About 67% of the students agreed that the computer-mediated communication tools facilitated interaction between the student and instructor. Another 47% of the students believed that the communication tools facilitated student-student interaction.
In another study that involved computer conference and web-based course reporting, Bourne, McMaster, Rieger, and Campbell (1997) reported that 30% of the learners were not comfortable with the educational situation and stated a preference for face-to-face lectures. Students also procrastinated more than in traditional courses. Matuga (2001) found that even when learners were haphazardly assigned to groups, the dynamics were more effective in some groups than others. There were reports that students perceived the electronic group-based discussions as forcing them to look at the opinions of others as a way to get new information and to reflect and learn from their peers (Matuga, 2001).
In research concerning a problem-based web learning environment, Oliver and Omari (2001) found that a larger group of learners felt that they had profited from and were satisfied with their experiences. Yet for nearly half of the students, this was not their desired form of learning. Also, the majority of students said they had some appreciation of the collaborative problem-based computer-mediated learning, but again almost 50% said they would like to work alone rather than in group.
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