Ancient China: history, culture, and civilization

Ancient China

The Xia dynasty lasted from 2100 BCE to 1600 BCE; the Shang from 1600 BCE to 1100 BCE. Because archaeological evidence and research are relatively new for Xia and Shang cultures, the exact dates of their dynasties are estimates only. Historical writings suggest that the Shang overthrew the Xia but the two cultures appear to share common origins. Because of the blurred line between Xia and Shang, Shang is sometimes used as a blanket term to refer to one contiguous culture marking the peak of the Bronze Age in China. The Xia and Shang civilizations were located in Northern China in the valley along the Huanghe (Yellow) River. In fact, the Xia and Shang represent the first major civilizations in China. Increased centralization of power, class stratification, advanced architectural and manufacturing techniques, and the emergence of writing distinguish these Bronze Age cultures from the agrarian ones that preceded them.

Geographic expediency fueled the advancement of wealth and power among the Xia and Shang. Agriculture had proved fruitful but their position along the Yellow River made metallurgy possible. Located near tin and copper deposits, bronze quickly became a lucrative natural resource. Bronze casting was an art. Most of the people living under Shang rulers retained an agrarian lifestyle, with only the elite having access to bronze casters and the objects they produced.

During both the Xia and Shang dynasties, political rulers legitimized their power with claims to divine authority much as in ancient Egypt (Class unit: 11). The shamanistic rulers of both the Xia and Shang used bronze cauldrons in rituals to symbolize their power as well as the transmission of power from one generation to the next. Only the elite ruling classes had access to bronze, which became material proof of their divinely bestowed potency as well as of their secular authority.

Some evidence suggests that the Shang culture may have distinguished between sacred centers of power and secular ones, with many Shang capital cities being scattered throughout the region (Class unit: 14; "The Evolution of Complex Societies in China,": 444). Bronze objects, pottery, and tools are continually being excavated, proving the complexity and relative advancement of Shang culture. Zhengzhou was one of the most significant of the Shang capitals and may have been a political hub. Evidence reveals a strong hierarchical social organization with a Shang King at the top of a political pyramid. Quite poassiby, local nobility helped retain the model of centralized authority throughout the region.

Xia and Shang dynasties became progressively more powerful and autocratic as their wealth increased. The cultures shifted from a primarily agrarian economic base to one that used metal as a means to craft practical and ritual objects. In addition to the ritual cauldrons that were emblematic of the Xia dynasty, other uses of advanced metallurgical techniques include the manufacturing of "jue," vessels used to hold a grain alcohol beverage commonly translated as "wine," (Class unit: 12). In fact, bronze objects were cast en masse during the Xia and Shang dynasties (Class unit: 12). Warfare over metals, especially tin and copper, transformed the balance of power in the region (Class unit: 12). Commoners were frequently conscripted for military service during the Shang dynasty ("The Evolution of Complex Societies in China,": 446). Bronze casting allowed Shang rulers to have access to advanced weaponry. Their bronze weapons, their centralized leadership, and their control over a large number of peasant soldiers enabled the Shang to become the first expansionist Chinese civilization.

Formally believed to be a mythical city, the now excavated Erlitou is considered to be the hub of Xia and Shang culture. Characteristic of the Erlitou excavation are the raised platforms made of rammed earth. Assumed to be the residences of elite Xia and Shang, the entrances to the residences face south as do many modern Chinese structures (Class unit: 12). Some researchers refer to the residences as "palaces" because of their size and scope as well as their apparently being the residences of the aristocracy ("The Evolution of Complex Societies in China,": 443). Erlitou tombs offer further evidence of class stratification in Xia and Shang culture, as most of the excavated tombs were constructed for an elite ruling class.