Ancient Greek Olympics and their influence on modern sports

Ancient Greek Olympics and Their Influence on Sports Today

Most of Greek history has been recorded and printed in great numbers. However, no authentic historic records illustrate Olympic activity before 776 B.C. Nonetheless, it is worth noting here within the contests in Homer's Iliad, clear indications have been given to these competitive games. The Olympic activity had been carried out mainly in the honor of their god Zeus. Games took place in the great city of Olympia for 4 consecutive days, and sometimes even 5 days, after every four years.

Due to their deep-rooted and extensive history, Olympics held a very prestigious place amongst the Greeks. A variety of games were played, which comprised the Isthmian at Corinth, the Pythian Games at Delphi, as well as, the Nemean at Argos. Paul (2000) gives a brief account of the Olympic activity during the Greek period. He writes, "They were held then, as always, before and since, at Olympia, in the north-west Peloponnese, a relatively insignificant and inaccessible location. They were under the presidency of the local city-state of Elis, again not one of the major players in the ancient Greek league. So far as the sports component went, there were by then nine main events, all for male competitors only: the stadion or one-lap sprint (about 200 metres); diaulos or 400 metres; dolichos or 'long' distance (24 laps); pentathlon; boxing; four-horse chariot race; pankration; horse race; and race-in-armour. But the sports component was only one part, and not the most important, of the five-day festival, held at the second full moon after the summer solstice."

Similar views have been provided by an extremely famous archeologist, David Gilman Romano. David Gilman Romano is considered an expert on Greek history and has authored many books and research studies pertaining to ancient Greece. He writes, "Although there are very few similarities between the ancient and the modern Olympics, the events and developments of the ancient Games provide much food for thought. After the Games of 676 BC came to a close, the festivals at Olympia continued to increase in size and spectacle. Competitions were held every four years for more than a thousand years, until the Games were eliminated altogether toward the end of the 4th century AD by Theodosius, Emperor of Byzantium. Over the centuries, the original purpose and religious significance of the ancient Games became heavily influenced by a variety of political, social, and economic forces and rapidly became a spectacle for athletes to compete for fortune and fame. Looking to the Games of the 26th modern Olympiad, one is compelled to ask if the legacy of the modern Olympics will follow a similar pattern (Taken from: http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

In the modern world more athletes than ever are articulating their religious faith candidly, quite often to the disappointment of their fans, commentators, as well as their teammates. The debate, however, surrounding the academic and intellectual circles is whether the arenas of sport an appropriate place to proclaim the glory of God.

The articulation of religion can take place in almost any part of the sporting world, from the thrilled boxing rings of Atlantic City and Las Vegas to the extensive standard car tracks of Europe, from the animated stadiums of football in Latin America to the luxurious, green fairways of professional golf in South Africa.

Researchers assert that, in the 1990s, more athletes and sports personalities than ever before have started to candidly articulate their religious faith in the presence of their adversaries, teammates, admirers, as well as, television cameras. They go down on your knees. They pray. They yell. They revel and position their fingers to the heavens, presenting thanks to the God, who they articulate has given them the bravery and power to contend and succeed in their selected sports. And when their workday is complete and their term is ended, they carry on to spread their religious expressions in the world outside sports, by means of their standing and superstar personality to attract both the juvenile and the old in a similar way into campgrounds, associations, programs, as well as, organizations whose reason is to serve the god.

The Influence of Ancient Greek Olympics on Modern Sports

The Site of the Games

The Greeks did not change their venue every time they decided to hold Olympics. The place that would hold Olympics every four years had been fixed and had been the same all the way through. Richard Polidoro and Uriel Simri (1996) give a brief illustration about the location of the games. They write, "The sacred site of Olympia is located at the juncture of the Cladeus and Alpheus rivers in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese. According to the ancients, the site was designated in the 11th century BC as a sacred shrine in honor of the supreme god Zeus. Olympia in 676 BC was probably an open field with an altar erected in honor of Zeus, a small shrine in honor of the legendary Pelops, and a scattering of less significant altars .... The altis, or sacred shrine, was nothing like what we know existed in later times. It only contained the Pelopion (a small shrine in honor of Pelops) and a number of altars, including the major altar dedicated to Zeus. Aside from the stadium, there were very few buildings in Olympia. There were no facilities to train, feed, or house the athletes. The athletes most likely slept along the banks of the two rivers, bathed in the river water, and practiced in an open field. Each athlete was responsible for his own food and supplies." Similar views have been illustrated by Mallwitz (1972) in his analysis of the structures of the Olympia.

Similarly, David Gilman Romano writes, "The ancient Olympic Games were primarily a part of a religious festival in honor of Zeus, the father of the Greek gods and goddesses. The festival and the games were held in Olympia (see 'Did you know' in the glossary), a rural sanctuary site (model shown here, courtesy of the British Museum) in the western Peloponnesos. The Greeks that came to the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia shared the same religious beliefs and spoke the same language. The athletes were all male citizens of the city-states from every corner of the Greek world, coming from as far away as Iberia (Spain) in the west and the Black Sea (Turkey) in the east (Taken from: http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

Influence on Modern Sports

In the modern world, nations and countries compete with one another. The home advantage for the team playing in its own territory has been scrutinized in sport competitions for more than 2 decades. Results have time after time established that there tends to be an accomplishment benefit connected with contending at home amid major qualified and amateur associations, individual teams, as well as, even individual sport athletes (Steven R. Bray, Marc V. Jones and Stephanie Owen. 2002).

The Olympic Program in Ancient Greece

The Olympic Games in Ancient Greece took place under the control of the men who were not common people, by any stretch of imagination. The people who controlled the Olympic Games had been extremely rich, wealthy and influential. This ensured that the Games continued to be managed in a proper way. This enhanced public participation both as spectators and athletes. Richard Polidoro and Uriel Simri (1996) write, "In 676 BC, the Games were under the control of the Pisatan authorities, who were generally men of wealth and notability .the Games were held alternately on the second or third full moon following the summer solstice, which corresponded to the longest day of the year. If this was the case, then the Games of 676 BC would have occurred in the month of July or August."

Similarly Douskou (1982) note the increasing enthusiasm of the Greeks in the Olympic Festival. He writes, "Originally scheduled as a one-day event, the Games at Olympia expanded to a five-day schedule in the middle of the 5th century BC. To the best of our knowledge, the Games in 676 BC lasted two days. A second day was added to the games in 680 BC to accommodate the addition of the chariot race."

Influence on Modern Sports

Today more than 200 sports are at the center stage of international events. These events, along with many others, are celebrated with equal enthusiasm all over the world. Some places, like South Asia, express extreme joy over and are ardent fans of cricket, while other places, like America take teen interest in Base Ball, Basket ball and Football (Heather E. Morrow 2004).

Athletes, Officials, and Spectators in Ancient Greece

The athletes came from all over Greece to participate in this historic event. Most of the athletes did not find it difficult to come to Olympia as they resided close by, whereas those who lived in far off places had to travel long distances to come to Olympia. It is interesting to note that all the Greek athletes, spectators and even the officials were not left unguarded as they excellent security measures were taken to guarantee their safety. As Richard Polidoro and Uriel Simri (1996) write, "

Most of the athletes participating in the Games of 676 BC probably came from various Peloponnesian districts and had a relatively short distance to travel. Some participants, however, may have traveled from communities located outside the immediate vicinity. Under the sacred truce, or ekecheiria, the athletes, officials, and spectators were guaranteed safe passage to and from Olympia."

Another important factor to note is that there were no such professional and specialized training institutes or organizations for the Greek athletes who participated in the events. Therefore, the athletes, more often than not, belonged to the wealthy class. Therefore it is fair to say that the Greek Olympics had been an event sponsored by the rich and participated by the rich. Finley and Pleket (1976) write, "The athletes of the 26th Olympiad probably came from the wealthy class, since only the wealthy would have had the finances and time to train and to travel to Olympia. Although formal training regimens for the Games became standard in later times, the athletes participating in the Games of 676 BC most likely trained and prepared for the Games on their own. They had no specialized coaches or trainers, and training facilities such as the gymnasium and the palaestra were not developed until the early 6th century BC."

Yet another important factor to note is the fact the being rich had not been the only aspect common amongst the athletes. As Finley and Pleket (1976) write, "It is clear that athletes had to meet certain criteria in order to participate. A participant had to be male, had to be born of Greek parents, could have no criminal record, and had to be officially registered as a citizen of his native city-state. This ruled out the participation of slaves."

The available data suggests that instead of having a team organize, finance and manage the whole event, only one male had been in charge to perform the affairs of the umpire and referee. This man had also been responsible for the finances of the event. Douskou (1982) asserts, "Until the 584 BC Games, one hellanodike (official and referee) was in charge of organizing and refereeing the Games. This individual was usually very wealthy and influential. It seems hard to believe that one person could have handled all the administrative aspects of the Games, but we simply lack plausible data to the contrary. The cost of financing the Games of 676 BC most likely was borne by the local hellanodike. There is no evidence to suggest that the spectators of the ancient Games were ever charged an admissions fee."

Very little information is available about the spectators of the game. The data available suggests that the Greeks had been very enthusiastic about the Olympics and used to consistently bet on the games. Finley and Pleket (1976) write, "Most of the spectators drawn to the Games of 676 BC most likely came from the immediate communities throughout the Peloponnese. We have very little information regarding the number of spectators present at any of the ancient Games. Many historians believe that the Greeks were enthusiastic bettors and that betting among spectators was quite common at such festivals as the ancient Olympics."

Athletes, Officials, and Spectators in Modern Sports

In most cases, the coaching and training facilities for modern athletes are extremely strict the same can be articulated for the contests between teams representing the not only their countries, at the international level, but also local college and state teams. Similarly, coaching these athletes can be both an honorary service, as well as, a highly paid service. Properly trained grounds men exist to take due care of the sporting and training facilities (Funk Gary 1991).

The selection of players does not depend on his/her economic well-being but on the hard work and exceptional talent one possesses. In some sporting organizations selection practice is significantly modified by placing the selection of the teams in the hands of a "selection committee." This division of responsibility gives the impression to work extremely well almost on all the places it has been tried. There is wide-spread system dedicated to focusing and improving on the technique of the concerned sport, for the growth and development of a particular team is anticipated to endure by enhancing their playing techniques (Funk Gary 1991).

The extremely complicated task of implementing the regulations before-during-after a particular sporting event falls to a competent organization being run be professional workforce. In most cases, the primary function for these organizations is that they functions as not only the police officer but also the advocate and promoter of the concerned sports (Funk Gary 1991).

It primary function in to keep the venture moral and principled by consistently modifying the guide of individual players as well as the coaches and, simultaneously, play an essential role in making millions and millions of dollars for its shareholders, first and foremost, by selling television broadcast rights (Funk Gary 1991).

Fans and spectators are the lifeblood of any sport being played today. They form a vital element for commercial accomplishment. However, some fans take their loyalty and attachment to their games too far, tarnishing weddings and careers and crossing the line into disorder and destruction (Funk Gary 1991).

The Victors and Rewards in Ancient Greece

The prices for the ancient Greeks had not been all that eye-catching. Here it is important to note that the victors were treated as gods and heroes. This in itself was considered an award by the athletes. However, those who failed brought upon themselves extreme disgrace. As Finley and Pleket (1976) write, "The prize at Olympia became the crown of the wild olive in 752 BC. The olive branches were cut from a sacred tree in Olympia and were presented as prizes to the victor. In addition to receiving the olive wreath, the victor also had ribbons of red wool tied around his head, feet, and hands. There were no second- or third-place awards. The ancient Greeks worshipped success and victory alone brought glory and prestige to the winner. Participation for its own sake was no virtue, and defeat brought undying shame to the athletes."

However, some researchers have asserted that no rewards had been given to the victors of the Olympics. Young (1984) writes, "There is no conclusive evidence of additional rewards granted to Olympic victors by the organizers or by their city-states during the period of time." On the other hand, other researchers assert and give evidence that high amounts of money had been given to those who won the event. "One of the things we'll hear argued about the modern Olympic Games is the question of amateurism (and professionalism) of athletes. This was not a concern of the Greeks since ancient athletes regularly received prizes worth substantial amounts of money. In fact, the word athlete is an ancient Greek word that means 'one who competes for a prize' and was related to two other Greek words, athlos meaning 'contest' and athlon meaning 'prize.' Material awards were routinely given as prizes (more info) at most of the athletic festival sites all over the Greek world. During the 8th, 7th, and 6th centuries BC, dozens of athletic events were established as parts of religious festivals honoring heroes, gods, or even victorious battles. Athletes who won at any of these Pan-Hellenic games could be assured of great wealth when they returned home. According to the Roman author Plutarch, an Olympic victor who was a citizen of Athens could expect to receive in the year 600 BC a cash award of 500 drachmai, a literal fortune. An Isthmian victor would receive 100 drachmai. From an Athenian inscription of the 5th century BC, we learn that Athenian Olympic victors received a free meal in the City Hall every day for the rest of their lives, a kind of early pension plan. Later, in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, pensions for athletes became more formalized and could actually be bought and sold.

This evidence suggests that there were no amateur athletes in ancient Greece, but there were no professional athletes either, for there was no distinction between the two categories, all were simply athletes. The concept of "amateur athletics," developed in the 19th century AD, would have been very foreign to the ancient Greeks since the winning of a valuable or prestigious prize was an important part of being an athlete. (Taken from: http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

The Victors and Rewards in Modern Sports

Highly famous players and sports celebrates are a competitive test for corporations, sponsoring sporting events to gain exposure, and associations, managing the event. This is because they create status, success, along with millions of dollars for not only their sponsors but also their associations. The restrictions of lawful and moral behavior are hard for numerous people concerned in the recruiting procedures (Byers Walter, with Charles Hammer 1995).

As major sporting associations and sponsors pick up the pace in their pursuit for money and success, they carry on wrestling with the satire that position at the center of their all sporting activities: most of the outstanding athletes are poverty-stricken gold mines. Their accomplishments produce millions of dollars in profits for the associations they act for, nevertheless they themselves are given nothing more than the reimbursement that come with their "athletic scholarships (Byers Walter, with Charles Hammer 1995)."

Supporters of the present system assert that those advantages are more than adequate payment for the services that a participant gives. Critics contradict that thousands of athletes have no significant chance to make an honest living for the reason that of the overwhelming demands positioned on them to make sports their primary, and only, priority (Byers Walter, with Charles Hammer 1995).

The commercialization of sports throughout the world burst out in the 1990s, with Nike as well as other athletic footwear companies directing the rush up the pile of money. Byers Walter and Charles Hammer (1995) describe the present scenario when they write, "In a volatile world where fashion rules and styles change frequently, the quest for teen dollars is tough and competitive. Shoe companies are learning that only the stars with the highest profiles can help their bottom line. In addition to Jordan, Nike counts Phoenix Suns forward Charles Barkley, Utah Jazz guard John Stockton, and Minnesota Timberwolves center Kevin Garnett in its camp. Reebok shoes are endorsed by Los Angeles Lakers center Shaquille O'Neal and Philadelphia 76 ers, guard Allen Iverson. Adidas signed Toronto Raptors forward Tracy McGrady before he had played in a single professional game. The six-year agreement could pay him as much as $12 million, the most lucrative endorsement deal ever for a player who entered the NBA directly out of high school without attending college. Fila, an Italian company, signed Detroit Pistons star Grant Hill as its principal spokesman and watched footwear sales more than double. "The Hill" is Fila's fastest-selling product ever."

Similarly, Horowitz (1997) in his study gives a detailed analysis of how corporations are exploiting the athletes. "Endorsement money flows to athletes in less visible sports as well. The swimwear company Speedo outfitted thirty divers, swimmers, and beach volleyballers at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. In 1996, IBM signed an athlete for the first time, pro-golfer Phil Mickelson, to endorse its hardware products. Drag racer Kristen Powell, known as the world's fastest teenager, signed with Reebok in 1997. American soccer stars Eric Wynalda and Alexi Lalas are under contract to Reebok and Adidas, respectively, and Mia Hamm, the mainstay of the women's national team, endorses Pert Plus shampoo, Power Bars, Pepsi, and Earth Grains cereal. The Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), which began play in 1997, has attracted a host of sponsors, including Sears and Lee Jeans, and corporate sponsorship of women's sports in the United States soared from $285 million in 1992 to $600 million in 1997."

It is clear that in the modern world of sporting, "corporate sponsors are finding ways to spend their money in the corners of the sports world where the amateurs compete too. Youth sports leagues, which always operate on slim budgets, have offered sponsors access to the millions of children and parents who participate in their games in exchange for operating revenue. Rawlings Sporting Goods, Lever Brothers, Sunkist, and Quaker Oats are among the many consumer goods companies that have signed on. Their goal is to create loyalty to their products early in the lives of the young athletes in the hope that that loyalty will endure for a lifetime. Commercial sponsorship in youth leagues is not a new phenomenon. When Little League Baseball launched its first season in 1939, a pretzel company, a lumber yard, and a dairy in Pennsylvania each paid $30 to place their names on team uniforms. That quaint practice, which is still common, has been expanded to include sophisticated and targeted mailings to the upper-middle-class, affluent families that participate most heavily in youth sports leagues (Johnson 1998: A1)."

The role of women in ancient Greece

Women were not allowed to participate in the main events. However, data suggests that women used to participate in separate events, quite trivial in popularity, along with males. David Gilman Romano writes, "Along with the athletic contests held at ancient Olympia, there was a separate festival in honor of Hera (the wife of Zeus). This festival included foot races for unmarried girls. Although it is not known how old the festival was, it may have been almost as old as the festival for boys and men .little is known about this festival other than what Pausanias, a 2nd century AD Greek traveler, tells us. He mentions it in his description of the Temple of Hera in the Sanctuary of Zeus (model, courtesy of British Museum, shown above and plan shown below), and says that it was organized and supervised by a committee of 16 women from the cities of Elis. The festival took place every four years, when a new peplos was woven and presented to Hera inside her temple (http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

It is interesting to note that married women were at a disadvantage in a number of ways. They were allowed to neither watch the main event nor participate in the side events. The data available suggests that only unmarried women could perform such endeavors. David Gilman Romano writes, "Unmarried girls had a number of advantages at Olympia. They not only had their own athletic contests of the Hera festival in which to participate, but they were also allowed to watch the men's and boys' contests of the festival of Zeus. Married women, on the other hand, were not allowed to participate in the athletic contests of the Hera festival, and were barred on penalty of death from the Sanctuary of Zeus on the days of the athletic competition for boys and men (http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

The role of women in Modern Sports

In the preceding 50 years, not only the growth in the numbers of girls' and women's sports programs has been spectacular but also the increasing number of female participation has been noteworthy. In the center of that development, female athletes continue to confront sexual persecution, inferior salaries, as well as resistance to their presence on the playing ground (Caryer Lee 1996).

Over the years, the world of women's sports extended to comprise softball, Olympic competition, golf, tennis, as well as, many other sports. On the other hand, any young woman like Billie Jean Moffitt who has made a pledge to do extremely well in athletics is considered to be strange, and most of the people all over the world carry on to cling to the belief system that females are emotionally, physically, as well as, mentally unsuitable for the rigors of ice hockey, long-distance running, baseball, as well as, other physically demanding sports (Caryer Lee 1996).

The politics in the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece

The people who had gathered to watch the games did not congregate to simply watch and enjoy the event. The Greek Olympics had been an event that allowed people from the wealthy class to participate ponder on different political matters, at the same time as, enjoying the game. David Gilman Romano writes, "The celebration of the Olympic Games in antiquity was an occasion for citizens of scattered Greek city-states to assemble. At the Games they discussed important political issues, celebrated common military victories and even formed political and military alliances (Taken from: http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

It is interesting to note that even is that era, political discussions sometimes turned into minor conflicts, and other times into major conflicts. Whether this was a deliberate attempt from one party to thwart their opposition is unknown, David Gilman Romano writes, "But the Games were not only a forum in which to discuss political events; they were also the cause of political conflict (Taken from: http://www.museum.upenn.edu)."

The games held in Olympia had several advantages for the elite residing in this region. As the games progressed, the wealthy were able to gain not only political influence but also enhance social and economic progress. David Gilman Romano writes, "Control of the Sanctuary and the Games brought with it prestige, economic advantages and, most importantly, political influence. As early as the 7th century BC we hear of disputes over the control of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia between the city of Elis (30 miles to the north) and the small neighboring town of Pisa."

Many battles had been fought to gain control over the place. All the concerned powers that be understood the value and importance of Olympia and its sanctuaries. Many writers and poets of Greeks had written about these battles in their works and numerous modern scholars have cited them in their writings. David Gilman Romano writes about one such Greek writer Pausanias, according to whom, "In 668 BC, the powerful tyrant of Argos (named Pheidon) was asked by the town of Pisa to capture the Sanctuary of Zeus from the city-state of Elis. Pheidon, with his army of well-trained hoplites (armed soldiers), marched across the Peloponnesos, secured the Sanctuary for the town of Pisa, and personally presided over the conduct of the games. But Pisa's control of the Sanctuary was brief: by the next year Elis had regained control."

Politics in Modern Sports

Jacques Rogge gives an excellent account of the presence of politics in modern sports. He writes, "In the 1970s, the United States and China drew closer to each other by playing table tennis. During the 2000 Games in Sydney, North and South Korea marched together behind one flag and even wore the same uniform during the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Games -- a feat that remains difficult to achieve outside the sports arena. Every day, sports competitions in refugee camps around the world help differing groups of people, once at war with each other, begin to learn how to coexist peacefully. Sport and Peace Roundtables, which the JOG sponsors in regions of conflict, bring sports organizations together where political organizations cannot. The hope is that if youth can learn to respect each other on the field of play, they will transfer this sentiment to other elements of their daily lives. Sport alone cannot change the world, but it can foster bonds between people where before nothing but animosity existed. The common experience of playing sports can begin to replace ignorance with communication and understanding."

He further writes, "While the Games highlight the thrill of participation and the glory of victory; they also demonstrate the core Olympic values: fair play, respect for others, the balance between a strong body and mind, and the joy of taking part in the pursuit of excellence. Sport, properly taught, instills important social values and plays an important role in teaching values to youth, enabling them to improve themselves and their community. Boiled down to their essence, the Olympic values are about respect: respect for universally-accepted rules, oneself, and others. In today's world, these values are increasingly relevant."