Leadership theories and their mechanisms within organizational groups

Applying Leadership Theory to Leadership Practice

In this paper the writer researches and writes a literature review on a Applying Leadership Theory to Leadership Practice. The research paper is a comprehensive thematic review of the scholarly literature related to the topic. The leadership theories to focus on are: Path-Goal Theory; Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory; Psychodynamic Approach Theory; outcome and situational leadership; Leadership focused on effectiveness and productivity; Leadership and Body language; and lastly, the Synergistic Leadership Theory.

The mechanisms through which leadership and power may be put into effect and "travel" within a group of people: bottom-up; Top-down; lateral (termed as shared leadership); and integrated (a combination of top-down, bottom-up, and lateral leadership), can be described using the leadership models explained in this paper. The top-down model; is a seductive siren song associated to the real-life performance of leadership in organizations. Thus many research and practitioners believe that leadership is concentrated on top-down model (Craig, Jay and Edwin, 2008).

The shared leadership theory explains and addresses a dynamic give-and-take, and therefore leadership is much complicated process. A number of integrated models are not inconsistent with the shared leadership's definition: Shared leadership is "an active, interactive influence process between individuals in groups whose main objective is to guide one another to the fulfillment of organizational or group goals or may be both. The integrated model that you termed in the final conclusions gives a good view of leadership and we significantly agree to it. Lateral or peer influence, and at many times upward or downward hierarchical influence is involved in this influence process" (Pearce & Conger, 2003 as cited in Craig, Jay and Edwin, 2008). Although many share the same thoughts in many areas, but there are some areas where some ideas do not match (Craig, Jay and Edwin, 2008).

In this paper the writer researches and writes a literature review on a Applying Leadership Theory to Leadership Practice. The research paper is a comprehensive thematic review of the scholarly literature related to the topic. The leadership theories to focus on are: Path-Goal Theory; Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory; Psychodynamic Approach Theory; outcome and situational leadership; Leadership focused on effectiveness and productivity; Leadership and Body language; and lastly, the Synergistic Leadership Theory.

1. Leader-member exchange theory

Dyadic process of developing an expectations and responsibilities for the leader so that he can work accordingly with all of his subordinates is known as the theory of LMX (Leader-member exchange). The exchange relationship with all the subordinates in not the same. Using this theory, there is development of both high and low exchange relationships. In exchange relationship with low quality, the subordinates are not provided with any extra benefits as they their job consists of performing only those requirements that are formal. However, if the exchange relationship is of high quality, the subordinates are given rewards, extra responsibilities and tasks that are of interest to them. This shows that between the subordinates and the leader, there is a certain level of respect, liking, trust and common exchange of expectations. Here the subordinates are also loyal and dedicated to their work. These exchange relationships develop gradually. The positive attitude of the subordinates and the leader is of great importance (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009).

Uhl-Bein and Graen (1995 as cited in Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009) had suggested that the exchange relationships between subordinates and the leader should have high quality. Before that, LMX theory suggested that similar exchange relationships were not favorable for the leader. The leader should try to develop exchange relationship of high quality with maximum possible subordinates. According to Day and Gerstner (1997 as cited in Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009), the LMX outcomes of meta-analysis suggested that if the performance of the subordinates is good, there is job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational commitment and if there is satisfaction with the job, then the LMX could be positive (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009).

Outcomes and antecedents of LMX

Organizations where LMX is positive, the job stress is low, safety of the workplace is more and level of innovation is higher. This was observed by Liden and Erdogan (2002 as cited in Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009). Outcomes of LMX are more focused compared to the antecedents in many studies on correlates of the LXM. Studies on the antecedents had examines the qualities of the member and leader. These qualities include demographic similarity and cognitive style. The behavior of the leader being an antecedent of the LMX is rarely examined in the studies. Cashman and Graen (1975 as cited in Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009) have observes that at an initial stage on the LMX, the leaders work in such a way that could bring improvements in exchange relationships with all the subordinates. In addition, analysis issues were also included at the initial stage of this theory so that the subordinates can rate the behavior of the leader. The leader is also an antecedent and not much attention is given to him considering him at this position, many subordinates have also criticized the behavior of those leaders that use a behavior pattern in which subordinates are treated differently (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009).

Research on leader behavior and LMX

The behavior of the leader is only discussed as a description of MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire whereas transformational leadership has been emphasized in many studies related to the behavior of the leader. In many versions, four basic behaviors do not seem to be changing. These are intellectual stimulation (emphasizing to think innovatively), idealized influence (setting an example with symbolic behavior), inspirational motivation (having a clear vision) and individualized consideration (offer coaching, encouragement and support) but a change was observed in transformational behavior as there were consecutive questionnaire revisions (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009).

Composite scores are used by many researchers when they study ways of relating transformational relation with different variables. It is because there is a high correlation of scale score for behavior of the components. LMX is an example of the variables used (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009; Scheriesheim et al., 2006).

Many researchers concluded that there was a relation between LMX and a complex measure of the transformational leadership. Independence of particular kinds of transformational behavior of leader to the LMX was examined in just one study. In several regression analysis, an important positive relation was founded by Deluga (1992 as cited in Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009). This relationship was with the LMX for an idealized influence (b 1/4-0.31) and individualized consideration (b 1/4-0.48). However, intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation were excluded (Taber, O'Donnell and Yukl, 2009; Scheriesheim et al., 2006).

But there were hardly any studies where relationship between two kinds of leader behavior and LMX were included. These two behaviors of the leaders are not transformational. Study conducted by Schriesheim et al. (1998) and Fu and Yukl (1999) stated that LMX was related to discussing about the decisions with the subordinates in which they might be affected. Ansari et al. (2007) stated that LMX was also related to the delegation of authority to the subordinates by the leaders (Yukl, O'Donnell and Taber, 2009).

2. Outcome and situational leadership

Two dimensions are included in the theory related to the behavior of leadership which is structure and relation-orientation. This is derived from the factor analysis. Leadership is very essential for the organizations (Yukl, 2006; Juran, 1989; Arnetz, 2005; Leiter & Maslach, 1997; Arvonen, 2002). Because the dimensions of leadership behavior are related to various outcomes of the organization, therefore, between the dimensions is a balance. Several researchers have discussed about these outcomes considering different situations (Vinberg and Larsson, 2010).

There are different behaviors about effectiveness of leadership behaviors in organizations. Some analysts support contingency perspective, where they advise molding behaviors according to situations and desired results (Arvonen, 2002; Arvonen & Pettersson, 2002; Hersey & Blanchard, 1969, 1982a, 1982b; Reddin, 1970). While some other analysts believe that high-high (also known as 9, 9) in both aspects lead to best results in terms of organizational performance (e.g. Andersen, 1994; Blake & Mouton, 1985; Lennerlo f, 1968; Misumi, 1989; Misumi & Peterson, 1985). It is, therefore, difficult to determine the preference of contingency theory and universal theory for effective organizations.

There is another dimension of change orientation, which is found comparatively less in the literature. It was introduced in 1990s and was based on change pressure developed within the society. Organizations themselves witness this change pressure (as cited in Larsson and Vinberg, 2010).

4. Psychodynamic Leadership Development

In this context, existence of this development is evident pertaining to human resource development where management staff acts as a professional group practicing their authorities that bring an important effect in the employee lives, community widely, and the surroundings (Alvesson & Willmott, 1998). Realizing this, teachers of Human resource development have been desired to include social, moral and political elements in assessment of HRD, and the practice to compete with the management rather than willing to take over it (Grey & Mitev, 1995, p. 74). Various elements of challenge in assessment theory in this context include liberationalist (Freirian) theology, feminist, and poststructuralist scholarship to Marxism and analysis of labor process. These proposals by different authors' researches contain a significant difference in approach; however they overlap on a solid point-of-view that provides base in the process of redesigning and manipulating adult and higher education (as cited in Trehan, 2007).

Following are the application of different schools of thought converging on the characteristics which probably comprise of:

Catering assumptions and taking things for granted, and enquiring what should not be enquired. (as cited in Trehan, 2007);

Focusing on activities of power management and studying the relation, intersection and inequality of it with social elements.

Studying and evaluating discussions identifying sectional interest and eventually,

Creating a working environment and social structure based on justice rather than inequality or exploitation.

Reynolds (1997), in reply to identifying the shape of critical HRD practically, from the arguments of Giroux (1981), proposed an idea content-radical and method- or process-radical pedagogies. Radical material in form of critical ideas and perceptions is expressed by content radicals along with appearing as a replacement for technocratic management education. There exist some power relationships where it becomes matter of analogy, and these cannot be challenged as the relationship between lecturers / institutions and students.

Power inequalities are demonstrated by the process radicals in case of traditional student/teacher power relationship. As an example we can use the concepts of experiential learning, communicated syllabus, student appraisal or practical learning activities. According to Reynolds elements of assumed possibility questioning, analysis of power division in relations and a collective focus relating activities motivated with the surroundings (p. 316) (as cited in Trehan, 2007).

5. Leadership and Body language

The fundamental issue which is involved in this overview is the display of the attitude of the leaders; particularly the leaders' nonverbal attitude has been indicated with respect to the leadership (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

Since, this has been stated earlier that research regarding the Pygmalion effect was originally carried out in a classroom. Rosenthal (1973; summarized and explained in Eden 1990) evaluated numerous nonverbal behavior with which high amount expectations were connected and which teachers' acquired: the students with who has more expectations of the teachers received more smiles from them; a more frequent and longer eye-contact was maintained by the teachers with these students and approval, acceptance and warmth was conveyed to them through numerous posture of the body. (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

Smith (1997) evaluates more results regarding teaching in classroom: better teachers were those who were high engaged with their students. Disruptions occurred more frequently when the students and teachers had a lesser eye contact. Inclusion of a smile was there in the touching behavior that resulted in the improved performance of students. It has been shown by research that wider distance has been maintained by the teachers with the rejected students as compare to others. This reveals a nonverbal behavior of the teachers with their students (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

King (1971) presented some evaluations about leadership which had a lot of resemblance from this. Moreover, explained that the occurrence of these processes is unconscious. His work was performed with the workers who were deprived and having concerns about the expectations of leaders (and their particularly their attitude), the ways through which influence of the followers towards performance of the followers have been focused by the leaders were shown by King (1971). The workers whose performance were good and the persons whose performance was bad never realized the disparities in the behavior of leadership. Photos having distended pupils were chosen by the subordinates whose performance were high and were satisfied if they had been asked to make a choice of the photo reflecting the attitude of their leaders. Amusingly, differences among the photos even then not stated to the scope (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

According to this, their range of societal interaction's witting perception did not include the indication of affection and regard, that is enlarged students. The charismatic or transformational leadership is considered to be an additional appealing source, and studies in this regard may bring fresh thoughts with respect to nonverbal behavior in leadership. Mohr and Schyns (2004) states that, a discussion regarding the common background of charismatic or transformational leadership is essential before discussing some significant studies with respect to leader attributes (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

While talking about the construct of charismatic or transformational leadership, House (1977) and Bass (1985), states that, it is being used since long time in order to portray astonishing leaders. Weber (1921) says that, the actual meaning of the word charisma is attributes of leaders, while according to Bass (1985), when it comes to study the behavior of charisma; it is referred as transformational leadership. While discussing the common background of charismatic or transformational leadership Mohr and Schyns (2004) in cf. Schyns (2001) states that, although the concepts will be cited as they are used in the reviewed researches, but both terms, charisma and transformational leadership, represents the same fact (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

With reference to Conger/Kanungo (1994), it is said that we move forward from the more conventional attributes conscious hypotheses on charisma to the extraordinary leadership behaviours of transformational leadership. Bass/Avolio (1995) enlightens four dimensions of transformational leadership, which are as follows:

Idealized influence

Inspirational motivation

Intellectual stimulation

Individualized consideration

Mohr and Schyns (2004) conclude that, the subordinates are influenced by the long-term visions of their transformational leaders.

Their subordinates are intellectually motivated by them through stimulation and inspiration. According to Bass/Avolio (1993), Individual consideration is used by the transformation leaders in which the individual needs of each of the subordinates are emphasized. In order to find out the level of application of certain behaviours with respect to charismatic or transformational leadership, some cases of leadership manipulation along with the centered nonverbal behaviours of current leaders will be studied by us in the subsequent section. It is necessary, and in one aspect fascinating as well; to first have a look at the behaviours to see if there is any nonverbal behavior is included for assessment. In 1997, a research was carried out by Awamleh (1997, 55) in order to examine the perceptions of charisma; in which the manipulation of vision content and vision delivery was done and exhibited through videotaped speeches. The instructions regarding maintaining eye contact, gestures and postures, facial expressions, and voice articulateness were given to the performer who was engaged in conveying charismatic leadership. Mohr and Schyns (2004) conclude that, as a result, the leaders were supposed more charismatic by the participants, when they communicated nonverbally through the above body language.

In another experiment, the scripts were used by Howell and Shea (1999) so that the leader behaviours can be manipulated; nonverbal behaviours like, maintaining eye contact, facial expressions, inclination towards the participants, sitting on the edge of the desk, etc. were demonstrated by the leaders. Mohr and Schyns (2004) conclude that, those leaders who were instructed to behave in natural manner were credited lower charisma by the participants, as compare to those who were instructed to communicate according to the above scripted nonverbal behaviours.

Nonverbal behaviours like, healthy amount of smile with intensity, and visually attending the audience, regularly and for a longer span of time, will make the leaders more charismatic in sight of the pupils (Cherulnik, Donley, Wiewel, and Miller [2001]). Moreover, these attributes are also applicable in political leadership. We have concluded it is beneficial for us to look at investigation done regarding political leadership more closely. Mostly it is the way a politicians leaderships qualities are displayed in front of the common man. For example the investigation can focus on how a politician acts when giving an interview or a speech. The conclusion found from this investigation can also be useful at times for direct leadership although that is not the initial purpose of this investigation (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

There are three operative facial that are used by politicians, these are terror/tricky, fury / thread and cheerfulness / confidence as studied by Masters and Sullivan (1993). Various parts of the face are used to display these emotions, these are, the showing of the teeth, corners of the mouth which can be up or down, the position and direction of the head, whether the eyelids are open or closed, the eyebrows are down or elevated and whether the position of the eye is firm, diverted or staring. It has been noted through investigation that the people viewing are physical features also respond to them emotionally (Masters / Sullivan 1993). It has also been noted by Sullivan and Masters (1988) that the clarity and resemblance of the physical feature to the verbal sound also affects the viewer's response. This means that our physical feature should not be opposite or contradicting our verbal voice (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004). It is also noted that the force of the physical display also has an effect on the force of the emotional response (Masters / Sullivan 1993)

Investigation on coming up leaders questions why someone has leadership qualities. This is due to their physical display and attitude. Kalna and van Rooji (1982) have seen that coming up leaders after speaking look at the audience for a longer period of time (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

It is stated by Kalma (1992) that in order to be able to bring in others to join them on the floor, the behavior has to be linked in. This kind of attitude is more commonly seen among the leaders who have been delegated. Stein (1975) also agreed upon this and found that certain forms of non-verbal messages may relay an important impact on the way leadership works. Some features of the non-verbal leadership attitudes are the use of pacing, a loud audible voice, resting on the edge of a table, making eye contact with the listener, using body language and facial expressions, acknowledging them, etc. The preceding work by Ekman and O'Sullivan (1991) and Merhabian and Wiener (1967) depict the unique and distinct role taken up by the overall body language and expressions of a person. There are some points that are still to be considered and need a detailed account (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

Some information has been extracted about the use of non-verbal attitudes in leadership in relation to the Pygmalion theory and how these elements can be used for the more efficient performance of the leader and for the listeners and those under to be influenced by his potential and personality. One drawback seen is that these researches do not allow the interruptions of the non-verbal attitudes that may be used by a leader so as to develop a potential of the highest rank but is held aback because the follower has not followed up yet. This can be said to be the choice of behavior of the leader if the connected data and expectancy varies. This creates a form of inconsistency in the mediums of communication. In certain instances where there is inconsistency occurring in the communication mediums, the non-verbal methods of leadership may prove to be way more informative than the real information and meaning of the data (Mehrabian/Wiener 1967), and hence the appreciation extended in verbal sense is reduced with a more accurate and applicable facial expression. Some research conducted on the transformational as well as charismatic styles of leadership, political personalities, newly emerging leaders, enable one to suggest that as opposed to the Pygmalion research in which the non-verbal attitudes were a subject of the unconscious- this behavior can come about as a result of conscious elements too which may be influenced (for the political leaders, refer to Masters/Sullivan 1993; for practice of transformational leaders, refer to Cherulnik 1995) (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

Various factors, which have great effect, must be kept in mind when one is analyzing leadership to be an interactive development. It is fool-hardy to assume that nonverbal leadership behaviour can exist independently without two factors. The two factors being a) the context of the interaction taking place between a leader and the adherent and b) the individual character and personal traits of the individuals involved. In addition, the reader should be aware of general effects of nonverbal behaviour. The next section contains a literature review on the aforementioned three topics (as cited in Schyns and Mohr, 2004).

6. Path Goal theory and leadership

A contemporary theory of leadership is the Path-goal leadership theory (Evans, 1970; House, 1971). It comes as no surprise that it is over three decades old (Evans, 1968) as it is talked about in almost all textbooks on organizational and management behaviour (Hunt, 1996). The theory has solid scientific grounds which have been explored in great detail by several (over 120) reviews and articles (e.g., Wofford & Liska, 1993; Yukl, 1998) (Schriesheim et al., 2006).

On the other side many authors have stated that this theory is not very well tested and requires more work for it to be accepted universally (Yukl, 1998, p. 269) (see also, Bass, 1990; Evans, 1996; House, 1996; Schriesheim & Neider, 1996; Wofford & Liska, 1993) (Schriesheim et al., 2006).

Many issues have been raised about the ways in which the theory was tested but three factors stand out. The bad quality of standards and measures used in path-goal theory tests is one such factor. The method section focuses on this particular shortcoming (Schriesheim et al., 2006) but no one can deny the loss of support for this theory this has caused (House, 1996).

There is also the second concern that only a few aspects or facets of this theory have been tested while other equally important ones have been ignored and overlooked (Yukl, 1998, p. 269). Two reasons are generally given for this: the uneasiness of scholars in testing and extending the path-goal relationship because the simplest of connections have already been tested and the difficulty of extending this theory in a useful way (Schriesheim & Neider, 1996, p. 319). In response to this criticism House (1996) updated his original theory (House, 1971). He did this by explaining the basis of the theory in more detail and providing ways to extend the research of the path-goal approach. Updating older versions of his theory (e.g., House & Mitchell, 1974) he additionally also made a connection between his theory and the new and fast growing theories and research which he refers to as value-based leadership (frequently discussed under the tags of charismatic leadership or transformational leadership by other theorists; e.g., Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Conger & Kanungo, 1987). Unfortunately no further research or tests have been conducted of this new and refined theory even though one of the transformational leadership predictions in the updated theory of House (1996) (i.e., Proposition 24) identifiable as different from the other important leader in the transformational leadership field (Bass, 1985, 1990) (Schriesheim et al., 2006).

The want for viable tests for the level that the path-goal theory requires for its analysis is the third concern. Till now all tests of the path-goal theory hypotheses have utilized only raw scores or compound analyses (this involves using raw scores as well as other variables measured at the within- and/or between-group level of analysis; cf. Katerberg & Hom, 1981). When researchers fail to correctly test the level of analysis at which relationships happen the effects predicted can be wrongly identified or missed altogether. Hence, in HRD the managers involve in critical studying while identifying strategies based on critical perspectives helping the design of connections between work experiences and learning to study, maintain and design organizational behavior. Learning in relation to experience is important in the context of psychodynamic and systemic traditions, where the point of intersection relates to development, vision and understanding. However, psychodynamics is opposed to other strategies in the way that it involves learning induced by unconscious mind. It becomes complex and dynamically multifaceted task to employ these ideas in leadership management. However, studies carried out by Armstrong, 1997; French & Vince, 1999; Gould, Stapley, & Stein, 2004 have made it possible for leadership management and development to be explored (as cited in Trehan, 2007).

Path goal theory depicts two major aspects of leadership in understanding of its principle units (Evans, 1970; House, 1971; House & Dessler, 1974; House & Mitchell, 1974; Schriesheim & Neider, 1996; Wofford & Liska, 1993). Transformational leadership is also followed by the basic principles of the path goal theory; however it has not been appreciated in the general literature. Similarly, House (1996), applied research on the basic principles of original theory, exploring the scope of it, the research extended the theory by providing it a more clear orientation, hence providing it a redevelopment (as cited in Trehan, 2007).

However, to enhance the value of transformational leadership in which rewards are value-based should be increased by avoiding special rewards on secondary achievements. House (p.343) proposed what were the characteristics of a value-based leadership: expression of motivation, determined vision, high performance markers and targets and increased frequency of evaluating these performance markers giving them an essential importance (House & Shamir, 1993). To support this proposal, House took help from empirical literature: Bass and Avolio (1994), claiming how powerfully influential this leadership was on performance and motivation having effect sizes of .40-.50 (Vecchio et al., 2008).

What House speculates about the relation of conditional reward (in transactional leadership) with principles of transformational leadership is quite new. It speculates the relation between aspects of transformational leadership and conditional reward management as a negation in developing follower outcomes. In other words transformational leadership relation with lower conditional rewards should theoretically be stronger in comparison to high conditional rewards. Previously it was proposed that relation between transformational and transactional relationship has been on the rise (as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

This increase in relationship of the two leadership approaches favors the hypothesis that transformation leadership after controlling will predict significant leadership principles for transactional leadership. A comprehensive research by Judge and Piccolo (2004) examined this increased relationship hypothesis, the results of which reported supporting evidence for this hypothesis (as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

The only study to research the proposed negative relation between the two leadership approaches carried out by Schriesheim, Castro, Zhou, and DeChurch (2006) on the work of House, observed through a survey procedure, some facts reveling important results, which involved respondents from 295 state social services agency amongst 40 groups. Survey elements were extracted from Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990, which measured qualities of leadership employing conditional rewards, expression of motivation and vision, proper ideology, and group development through improvising acceptability of high performance targets (as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

Based on the results analyzed from the supervisor ratings, performance analysis and employee satisfaction reports, it was found that evidence supporting the theories of House or Bass and Avolio about increasing interrelation was not found. Resulting from the study by Schriesheim et al. researchers proposed that this interrelation did exist but only at an individual level of assessment rather than in group and would be claimed only for a positive moderator effect.

Schriesheim et al. (2006) although, found weak links of interrelation but they concluded that evidence supporting House's speculation in the re-researched theory and the hypothesis argued by Bass (1985) and his coworkers Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995; Waldman, Bass, & Yammarino, 1990)was weak (Vecchio et al., 2008; as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

Identifying scope of research further into the topic, particular importance was given to the appropriate standard of assessment and extraction of criteria data from the variables that have a different origin opposed to the predictor variables by Schriesheim et al. To take it further, it was required to build strong evidence by testing hypothesis of House in combination with Bass and Alovio (i.e studying the negative moderation effect of two major approaches of leadership) (Vecchio et al., 2008; as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

There is noticed an increase in development of sense of manipulation of practice of adult and higher education, in the past 10 years (see e.g., Barnett, 1977; Welton, 1995; as cited in Schriesheim et al. 2006).

7. The Synergistic Leadership Theory

Synergistic Leadership Theoryhas been built with determination as systems and postmodern theory to include the voice of female and their experience (Irby, Brown, Duffy, & Trautman, 2002). It is not only gender Inclusive, but also, socially just, pertinent to male and female leaders both and the theory lies on four equivalent factors:

-External forces

-Leadership behavior

-Attitudes, beliefs, and values

-Organizational structure

The model of the theory is a tetrahedron with six interactive pairs in which all the factors are equal and interacts with each other, and no structural hierarchy exists (Irby, Brown, Duffy, & Trautman, 2002).

Conclusion

Leadership skills and qualities can include such things as teamwork and partnership, leadership, organizational ability, interpersonal skills, strategic planning, self-management, decision-making, managing change, motivation of yourself and others, drive for achievement, time management and prioritizing, creative problem solving and analysis, information collection and analysis, ensuring quality, negotiating skills, managing conflict, listening skills, communication, resource management, financial management, and stress management. This list is not exhaustive, but gives an idea of a wide range of leadership skills and qualities that are relevant today. This paper discusses seven leadership qualities, which are vital for success in the profession of information technology.

The writer researched and wrote a literature review on applying leadership theory to leadership practice. The research paper is a comprehensive thematic review of the scholarly literature related to the topic. The leadership theories to focus on are: Path-Goal Theory; Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory; Psychodynamic Approach Theory; outcome and situational leadership; Leadership focused on effectiveness and productivity; Leadership and Body language; and lastly, the Synergistic Leadership Theory.

Lack of research exists on synergetic leadership theory. Future research on the topic, for starters, should focus on synergetic leadership theory and its impact on organizational effectiveness and workforce performance.

Gary Yukl, Mark O'Donnell and Thomas Taber. (2009). Influence of leader behaviors on the leader-member exchange relationship. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 24: 4, pp. 289-299.

Gary, Mark and Thomas in their article examined a more comprehensive set of leader behaviors than any previous study on LMX. This study is critical for this study as many studies have examined outcomes and antecedents of leader-member exchange (LMX), but few studies have explored how LMX is related to specific types of leadership behaviors.

Gary Yukl received his PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of California at Berkeley. He is a Professor of Management at UAlbany (State University of New York). He is a fellow of the Academy of Management and the Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology. His current research interests include leadership, power and influence, and management development. He has received several awards for his research, and has published many articles and several books, including Leadership in Organizations (Prentice-Hall, 2009).

Similarly, Mark O'Donnell is a doctoral student in Organizational Studies at University of Albany (State University of New York), and his PhD work will be completed in early 2009. His research interests include leadership, power and influence, corporate social responsibility, and management development.

In the same way, Thomas Taber received his PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is a Professor of Management at University of Albany (State University of New York). His research interests include organizational citizenship behavior, organizational change, work motivation, and team leadership. Along with two other colleagues, he received the Douglas McGregor Memorial Award for developing and evaluating a community-based program to reduce the social impact of a plant closing.

Larsson, J and Vinberg, S (2010). Leadership behavior in successful organizations: Universal or situation-dependent? Total Quality Management. 21: 3, pp 317 -- 334.

Larsson and Vinberg in their article review dimensions of leadership behavior theory and their relationship to effectiveness, productivity, quality, health and job satisfaction in organizations. The significance of this lies in its purposes which were to identify and summarise leadership behaviors common among successful organizations. Similarly another aim was to use these common elements to discuss those theoretical implications which concerned situational aspects of successful leadership behavior.

One of the writers, Larsson works in the Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Mid Sweden University, Sweden. Similarly, Vinberg works in the Swedish National Institute of Public Health and also the Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sweden.

Daniel, K. (2004). Psychological trends in retrospect and prospect: Invited symposium of lUPsyS past-presidents: INVITED SYMPOSIUM: A perspective on cognitive illusions. Department of Psychology, Princeton University.

Daniel, a professor at the Department of Psychology in Princeton University, in his article explains some persistent errors and illusions in intuitive impressions, judgments and preferences. The interplay between the two systems of thought determines whether the individual is able to detect and override the illusions of intuition. The significance of both these systems is critical in the leadership theory being discussed in this study.

Payette, D.L. And Libertella, A.F. (2011). Nascent Leadership Behaviors. American Journal of Business Education, 4; 6.

Payette and Libertella's study is critical as the material presented in this paper is oriented towards practical and actionable steps that the aspiring leader can decide to apply.

Dennis Payette, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management, Marketing & Decision Sciences in the School of Business at Adelphi University. His research interests have focused on pedagogical research related to use of modem teaching methods and technologies. In addition to teaching and research, Dr. Payefte's background includes service as a senior administrator at Long Island University and Dowling College. Similarly, Anthony Libertella, Ph.D.J.D. is a Professor of Management and Law in the School of Business at Adelphi University. He has served in a number of senior academic positions at various colleges ranging from Executive Vice President / Provost to Deanships. He was also a practicing attorney specializing in corporate and franchise law. Dr. Libertella's research interests are in strategic management, leadership, and law.

Schyns, B. And Mohr, G. (2004). Nonverbal Elements of Leadership Behaviour. German Journal of Human Resource Research; 18, 3.

Both Schyns and Mohr in their theoretical paper investigate the importance of nonverbal behavior in the context of leadership. This research is critical for this study as the decoding of social interactions has shown that the quality or type of relationships as well as relationally relevant emotional states are transmitted nonverbally.

Dr. Birgit Schyns is an assistant professor at Tilburg University, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Studies, Department of Human Resource Studies. Her main research interests are the perception of leadership and career issues such as preparedness to change. Similarly, Prof. Dr. Gisela Mohr is a full professor at the University of Leipzig. Her main research interests are gender and leadership issues, work and stress as well as the psychological contract.

Schriesheim, C.A. Castro, S.L. Zhou, X.T. DeChurch, L.A. (2006). An investigation of path-goal and transformational leadership theory predictions at the individual level of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly 17: 21 -- 38.

This study tested the recent path-goal leadership theory prediction that leader contingent reward behavior negatively moderates relationships between transformational leadership and subordinate performance and job satisfaction at the individual level of analysis. This study is critical as path-goal leadership theory is one of the concepts being explored in this study.

Schriesheim and Zhou are professors at the University of Miami in USA. While Castro teaches at Florida Atlantic University and DeChurch is a professor at Florida International University in America.

Vecchio, R.P. Justin, J.E. And Pearce, C.L. (2008). The utility of transactional and transformational leadership for predicting performance and satisfaction within a path-goal theory framework. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 71 -- 82.

Vecchio and his associates tested hypotheses derived from the integration of principles of path-goal theory and transformational leadership theory. This study is critical for the current research as both these leadership theories are critical concepts in this study.

Vecchio is a professor at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, USA. Similarly, Justin and Pearce are professors at Claremont Graduate University, California, USA.

Trehan, K. (2007). Psychodynamic and Critical Perspectives on Leadership Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources: 9(1), 72-82.

Kiran Trehan is head of the department of management at the University of Central England. She has taught a wide range of undergraduate, postgraduate, and professional programs. Her specialist areas of knowledge include organization development, management development, and management learning. Her current research and writing is especially concerned with critical management learning, leadership, and organizational development, using action research and narrative inquiry. She has written numerous research and conference papers, has had a wide range of journal articles published, and has contributed to an assortment of books in the area of management and human resource development.

Trehan's current article is vital for this study as it focuses on the value of critical approaches that enhance human resource development (HRD). She examines practical HRD issues and fills the gap between theory and practice when she reveals how critical HRD and psychoanalytic processes can be harnessed to produce valuable learning through reflection.

Craig L., Jay A. And Edwin, A. (2008). Shared leadership theory. The Leadership Quarterly 19: 622 -- 628.

Craig is a professor at the Claremont Graduate University Peter F. Drucker Graduate School of Management. Similarly, Jay is a professor at Claremont McKenna College and Edwin is a professor at the University of Maryland.

This article is critical for this study as it focuses in particular on clarifying what each means by "shared leadership," which serves as the theoretical background of the study. Subsequently, they focus on what shared leadership can and should look like at the top of organizations and provide practical and hands on illustrations while doing so.

Irby, B.J., Genevieve Brown, Jo Ann Duffy, Diane Trautman. (2002). The synergistic leadership theory. Journal of Educational Administration. 40, 4, pp.304 -- 322.

Irby, Genevieve, Jo Ann and Diane all teach and conduct regular research at the Sam Houston State University located in Huntsville, Texas USA. In this particular study they focus on the synergistic theory of leadership (SLT), which seeks to explicate the need for a post-modernist leadership theory by providing an alternative to, and not a replacement for, traditional leadership theories. Since most leadership theories inclining towards masculinity, this study is critical for the current study. The authors focus on six aspects, which are specific to the SLT and include issues concerning diversity and the inclusion of the female voice in the theory.