Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics is the philosopher's treatise on virtue ethics, teleological ethics, and human happiness. The Greek philosopher presents virtue as an essential component of good character: as a state of mind and a state of being. Virtue inspires individuals to act righteously, to treat others well, and to follow moral and ethical codes. However, Aristotle does not offer a deontological ethical code that assumes universal behavioral standards of right or wrong. The Nicomachean Ethics encourage flexible ethical decision-making based on the context of an event. Aristotle therefore places a large degree of confidence in the human actor, noting that from virtue and good character stem ethical actions. Acting ethically and virtually in turn lead to happiness. Happiness, according to Aristotle, is the ultimate aim of human life. The Nicomachean Ethis is composed of ten books. Aristotle stresses the concepts that virtue is the foundation of ethical behavior, and that ethical behavior is essential for achieving the goal of happiness.

Although Aristotle does not proscribe behavior, the philosopher does outline the core elements of virtue. As the foundation of ethical behavior, virtue is that which inspires the individual to act in a righteous fashion. Aristotle emphasizes free will and the power of the individual to make ethical decisions. In Book One, Aristotle underscores the importance of taking action and of employing free will in the pursuit of happiness. The philosopher claims that virtue alone is insufficient for morality. A virtuous character is full of potential: the potential to act and to choose actions that result in happiness. A virtuous character that does not act is not necessarily ethical. Actions are what determine ethics. In this sense, Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics form the foundation of utilitarianism. Happiness is the end that justifies the means. Happiness is the goal of every action, the ultimate goal of all decisions. Every ethical dilemma can be settled by determining whether the act brings pleasure or pain to all individuals involved. Therefore, Aristotle's most prominent messages that demonstrated his belief in man's potential to be good include the following. First, a character steeped in virtue is one most capable of acting ethically. Second, each human being is endowed with free will and the opportunity to choose an ethical or virtuous action over an unethical or sinful one. Third, all human beings desire happiness, and happiness stems from virtuous action.

In Chapter 12 of Book One, Aristotle distinguishes between justice and happiness as well as between virtue and happiness. The whole of Book One seems to be devoted to Aristotle's thesis that happiness is the end goal toward which all rational beings reach. In Chapter 12 of Book One, Aristotle claims that happiness is prized as if it were a divine state. Happiness is always considered the ultimate objective of human behavior and of human life. An individual can be the best runner in his city-state and the most he can hope to receive or to achieve is praise and admiration. Happiness may still elude him no matter how strong his legs are or how hard he trains. Similarly, virtue is not synonymous with happiness. Virtue can help an individual create happiness, as Aristotle explains throughout the Nicomachean Ethics. Until the individual puts into practice the core principles of character virtues and intellectual virtues, though, he or she may not experience happiness. By distinguishing happiness from both virtue and justice toward the beginning of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle helps his readers understand the meaning of virtue. Happiness is a transcendent state, one that is more sublime than virtue or justice.

Virtue, according to Aristotle, is the foundation of ethical behavior. Acting in accordance with virtuous principles is a key to attaining happiness. In Book Three of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains the difference between voluntary and involuntary action as well as total passivity. In the first chapter of the book, the philosopher explains the importance of free will and taking action in determining ethical behavior. Aristotle concludes that the only truly ethical acts are those that are chosen by the actor. An involuntary act, one that is done begrudgingly or because of coercion, might yield positive results but cannot be considered ethical. A person who picks up garbage from the streets because they are performing mandatory community service is not acting ethically or from a virtuous character. On the other hand, a person who picks up garbage on the streets to beautify the community or to welcome a guest would be acting with virtue and in accordance with ethics. Aristotle also explains a third state of being, which is basically being unaware. An individual who acts without thinking can also be performing virtuous and ethical behaviors but cannot be considered virtuous automatically. A person who picks up garbage from the streets mindlessly or to practice their throwing skills would have accomplished a positive goal but would not be considered virtuous. The behavior is ethical but the individual might not be. This passage underscores Aristotle's central claim that virtue is integral to human character. Ethics are not absolute laws or lists of "dos" and "don'ts." Instead, ethics are what distinguish intelligent, rational, and virtuous individuals from the rest of the world. Aristotle bases a person's character on actions rather than words; Aristotle judges ethical decisions on the person's intention to act as much as on the person's actions.

In the final book of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle reflects back on the concept of happiness and how it intertwines with his core arguments. In Chapter 7 of Book 10, Aristotle links together virtue and happiness. Moreover, Aristotle explains why pleasure helps human beings determine both virtue and happiness. Pleasure is like a gauge of both virtue and of happiness. In Chapter 7 of Book 10 the philosopher also notes that that reason is important to the creation and maintenance of happiness. Aristotle refers to the highest forms of happiness as the pinnacle of human thought. Happiness is "activity in accordance with virtue," as the philosopher states in the first sentence of the chapter.