William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement's social reform

¶ … Arts and Crafts Movement, beginning in 1860, was a movement pioneered by William Morris and Charles Voysey. The movement came in response to the industrial turn of the century. It was a way to rebel against the mechanical way of manufacturing in order to bring back traditional crafts as a decorative and valuable form rather than the requirement it had been previously. The Arts and Crafts Movement or the "anti-industrial movement" founded by Morris and Voysey was immensely successful, although the industrial revolution pressed on as technology progressed.

The movement gained traction due to its challenge of not just manufacturing, but also challenging Victorian era tastes. These attitudes stemmed from social reform concerns of thinkers such as John Ruskin and Walter Crane who, together with designer and reformer, William Morris, developed the basis for the movement. They linked good design with good society and shared a vision of a society where workers were not brutalized and subjugated to poor working conditions found in factories, but instead could find pride and respect within their skill and craftsmanship. Mass manufacturing, spurred by the increasing consumer class, generated poor quality and poorly designed products.

Morris, Ruskin, and several others did not want this kind of design to take over in society, so instead, revived the desire for individual craftsmanship (167).[footnoteRef:1] Individual craftsmanship could provide production of beautiful objects that demonstrated the result of fine craftsmanship that was both pleasing to the maker and the user. This not only allowed for more work and better pay for the artist who created the objects/products, but also higher satisfaction for the customer/consumer. The movement also helped artists ban together and form crafts exhibitions and keep an old way of production alive for future generations. [1: Meggs, Philip B., and Alston W. Purvis. Meggs' History of Graphic Design, 4th ed. Hoboken: J. Wiley & Sons, 2005.]

Morris was not the only main contributor to the movement. Ruskin, a figure of inspiration for Morris, encouraged education through craftsmanship, and believed learning how to create and produce items would lead to the uplifting of subjugated, and marginalized people. "He was aware that women of a certain class often found handicrafts beneficial and noted that what 'soothed the nerves of the upper middle-class woman, nervous from her relatively easy but empty life, surely would benefit the poor'" (33).[footnoteRef:2] He saw craftsmanship not only as a respectable means of gaining skills, but also of a way to create a sense of pride and ownership within people who did not have it represented in their lives. Although deemed at first impractical and expensive, the Arts and Crafts Movement proved to be an effective, realistic, and a practical movement. [2: Friedland, Judith. Restoring the Spirit: The Beginnings of Occupational Therapy in Canada, 1890-1930. Montre-al: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2011.]

Ruskin's writings, the basis of inspiration for Morris, was a great predictor of the social issues occurring within the time period: environmentalism, sustainability and most importantly for the movement, quality of craftsmanship. Thoughtless consumption coming from mass produced products, lessened the quality and beauty of consumer goods and reduced handcrafting and individualism, key aspects of traditional craftsmanship. William Morris, the main figure of the movement, gave a more practical application to it by taking Arts and Crafts style ideals to a more universal level, calling for economic and social reform through an incorporation of labor and art in society that would bring magnificence as well as affordability to ordinary objects and advance virtues such as simplicity, nature, and honesty.

His belief in providing affordable and well-crafted products to consumers allowed for the movement to gain footing because consumers felt satisfaction from their well-made products and could also have enough money to buy them. At a time where people were beginning to provide a decent enough living for themselves and their families, luxury was not something everyone could afford. For a movement such as the Arts and Crafts Movement to gain traction, it needed to appeal to the common man, and that it did. It supplied consumers with both useful items and beautiful items.

The methods utilized by the people who crafted items in the movement promoted simplicity, with art movements like modernism and Bauhaus applying the same principles. Simple but strong construction by an individual or a small group of people was realistic as many people could learn to be craftsman. The movement remained effective it expanding and spreading to America. It also provided a catalyst for education and promotion of quality in not just the products created, but also the artists themselves.

Although the Arts and Crafts movement was taking a step back to traditional and old ways of producing goods, it was revolutionary at the time because of its dedication to creating Arts and Crafts communities committed to producing artistic handicraft. These included furnishings, pottery, metalwork, and bookbinding which Morris produced in his own printing press. The Arts and Crafts communities influenced craftspeople to work in various media, such as woodwork, pottery, textiles, and metalwork. The methods of production involved rectilinearity, modestly treated materials, and nominal decoration.

In urban centers, the truly revolutionary aspects of the movement took place as socialist experiments done on a community level, through educating young women in craftwork. Women not only learned useful skills such as pottery, they also had the opportunity to earn decent wages and improve their skillsets. The women who pursued education in Arts and Crafts also learned to produce metalwork and textiles. Additionally women learned to fashion jewelry.

Working with a variety of products and learning various methods and processes not only afforded women to become better craftswomen, but also better artists. At a time where women had limited rights and felt disenfranchised, they were given a voice through their work. They were given opportunities at an education and fair pay when women were barely allowed to leave the home. Contemporary application of such a movement could see an increase in employee education and training which very much lacks in the modern world.

Currently people do not know much about making things like they did back in the earlier centuries. People rely heavily on machines and lost enthusiasm for creating and learning to create products. Factories produce things in an assembly with workers assigned a specific, repetitive task in the production line. Applying the educational aspect of the Arts and Crafts Movement to modern scenarios adds for not only better production of goods on an individual level, but also a chance for better pay as experienced by the women of the movement in early 20th century.

One of the most important aspects of the movement that perhaps could see modern application is the formation of guilds. People within the guilds were taught by experienced artists and eventually, after receiving paid training and enough experience, became teachers themselves in the artistic cycle represented within the guild structure. A sense of community, a sense of social responsibility, and more importantly, a sense of appreciation for not just art but for the people within the artistic circle is a key aspect of the movement that resulted in such a valuable and notable expanse of artistic development during the time.

Specifically in the graphic arts field, printers, type setters, and so forth spawned a revitalization of printing and handmade book binding. New fonts, typefaces and so forth were created during the movement which allowed for innovation and higher quality type design which was lost during the Industrial Revolution as machines took over. Very much like today, where machines do most of the printing, especially computers and writing in general, the quality of handwritten and handmade products is fewer and far between because of the heavy reliance of machines and machine made items.

If people re-learned how to do what machines do, not only would the quality of the products rise, but so would the work ethic and standard for the people making the items rise as well. So much of the problems of the modern world stem from convenience and availability that much of what was fought for in the Arts and Crafts and Movement was lost and forgotten. People no longer wish or care for high quality items, but rather, pursue the purchase of cheap items in order to allocate their funds elsewhere. Inevitably the cycle of consumerism in the modern age has led to other problems worse than that during the Arts and Crafts Movement.

The social issues described and endured during the Arts and Crafts Movement can be seen very much today, but in a larger scale. People of the present times are creating massively produced items for consumption by billions of people worldwide. Increasingly demand for these things is not based on quality, but rather quantity. People want cheap things, brand named items, etc., just to have them, not so much to serve a purpose or to support an artist. Most of the production is done anonymously with individually crafted items costing way more than massively produced ones. Unfortunately unlike the Arts and Crafts Movement, the society of today does not want to support creation of simple yet beautiful design by individuals and small groups. Instead it is concerned with profitability and acquiring the cheapest source of labor possible.

Countries like China and India have amassed a huge workforce that not only does an adequate job of manufacturing goods, but does so at exceedingly inexpensive rates, paying their employee pennies on the dollar. Most of the manufactured items sold in the western world are made in China and other countries that support sweat shop conditions and extremely low and unfair pay. Perhaps a re-emergence of the movement would help workers like these who struggle to survive under these working conditions, improve their lot in life. The movement supported and encouraged not only better working conditions for workers, but also generated comradery, a sense of pride in making things, and expressing design and creativity.

After all, the Arts and Crafts Movement celebrated beauty and meaning within everyday objects, and expressed through the use of one's hands. It was believed then and most likely would be now, to be a benefit to not just the individual, but society as a whole. Craftsmanship connects people with the world around them and nature as it improves morale by drawing people together. The movement in its peak offered people a chance to gain a sense of community with each other through guilds and organizations developed for the purpose of unity and union. These connections not only restored community life, but also brought a celebration of art and the betterment of society.

Although population size and technology was vastly different during the movement in comparison to today, the values and principles can still be applied. The only problem however, presents in importation of international goods. The main problems of today in regards to manufacturing is companies and their desire to outsource their labor. Back in the early 19th century, for example, America produced most of its consumer demand, especially in the area of textiles.

Now most of the clothing sold in America comes from either China or other countries like Malaysia and Pakistan. In order to solve the problem of outsourcing, the local and federal governments would have to severely restrict or ban importation from certain countries or in the very least limit how much labor companies within the respective country can outsource. The government in China for instance, would have to regulate employee pay and work conditions to allow for higher wages and unionization among workers. Adaptation of the principles of the Arts and Crafts movement, along with business regulation and reform, especially as applied to international limitations and importation would result in improvements not just in the product quality of manufactured goods, but also improved job availability domestically and internationally with employers in other countries forced to alter their pay rates and working conditions.

Manufacturing and business is consumer driven. If consumers opted to purchase domestically made goods instead of cheaply made internationally derived goods, then businesses would be forced to adapt their methods. It is a very complicated process that involves not just consumers, but manufacturers and with a struggling economy, political reform as well. Like the movement mentioned in its infancy, people lose their connection with nature and with each other when goods are mass produced. It is up to society in general to make the shifts towards appreciation and encouragement of individually crafted goods. Movements like the Arts and Crafts Movement should be brought back to ensure the survival of individual craftsmanship. Crafting and making products not only generates pride in the person making it, but also appreciation in the consumer. At times it best to take a step backward in order to move forward.

Giambattista Bodoni and Geoffroy Tory, were two very different and well-known graphic designers/typographers. Bodoni, celebrated for his simplistic style, was neat, clear, and decisive with his fonts whereas Tory saw paper as a place for creativity and art. His typeface especially in his work, The Book of Hours, contained sixteen full page borders and thirteen large woodcuts, breaking many of the publishing traditions of the time. Bodoni's style involved wide margins and used little or no illustrations or decorations, the exact opposite of Tory.

Geoffroy Tory's design philosophy began with a deep passion for the French language. As Megg's History of Graphic Design states: "As a reformer of the French language, he introduced the apostrophe, the accent, and the cedilla" (104).[footnoteRef:3] As it pertained to graphic arts, he played a primary role in the importation of the Italiantate influence as well as evolving a distinctively French Renaissance school of book design and illustration. His philosophy of design revolved around visual forms of the Italian Renaissance. His passion also came from his love of roman letterforms. "Tory's lettering, developed in Italy and used in the 1506 manuscript book Les heures de Jean LAllemant, is a light roman with long ascenders and descenders" (105)[footnoteRef:4]. [3: Meggs, Philip B., and Alston W. Purvis. Meggs' History, 104] [4: Ibid, 105]

Visual form was necessary for Tory as his work later demonstrated. After returning from a second trip to Italy, he focused on design and engraving of woodblocks. He then continued with opening a bookselling firm where he published, bound and illustrated, even printed books. He loved not just adding text to a book, but designing the book itself. "Tory sought out excellent craftsmen and trained them in his approach to book design, which helped to eliminate the dense, claustrophobic page layout and heavy Gothic typography in French printing" (105).

Like any visual artist, he represented pain and change within his work. Following the death of his beloved daughter, Tory formed the trademark of the pot casse, which became a poignant symbol for the French Renaissance. The symbol represented the ashes of his daughter Agnes, who unexpectedly died at the age of ten. In his grief he dedicated a poem to her and put the symbol at the end of it. "This shattered antique urn, chained to a closed, locked book and bearing the inscription non-plu, seems to symbolize the death of his daughter. This association is strengthened by the small winged figure in the upper right corner, a detail that has been cut away from the woodblock by the time this same cut was used in a book published by Tory a year later" (106)[footnoteRef:5]. [5: Ibid, 106]

Not only was Tory's work in, in of itself a source of inspiration for others, but it also made way for inclusion of designs within the page borders of books. Tory's Roman capital initials, came alive through scrupulous floral designs which provided the flawless complement for the lighter new roman types by Garamond. His work not only gained wide recognition, but also set the style for the era, as mentioned previously, the Book of Hours set precedence in its time. "Tory achieved a light, delicate effect in the complex illustrations and ornamental borders by using a fine contour line with air flowing around and within graceful curves" (106).

Tory's design philosophy grew to symbolize French Renaissance. He was of a light and artistic mindset that was reflected in his work. His work achieved not only a light effect, but a delicate and complex ornamentation through illustrious borders and intricate artwork. Gothic styles, the heavier, darker lettering, was pushed away as Tory's style breathed in a new and fresh perspective, thus influencing many others during and after his time.

The characteristics of Tory's work brought a new transparency of thought, a pioneering and inventive attitude toward form, and a detailed synchronization of the countless elements. These elements, some of which were text, capital initials, illustrations and borders, designated 1525 as the year for milestones in graphic design. France and its typographers led groundbreaking work with Tory being one of the front runners for innovation. His use of artistic elements in conjunction with text offered a different style and layering to writing making his work a reaction of that age.

Tory reflected his desire to rebel against the traditional writing forms and lettering. His actions were in direct contrast with those commonly seen during his time. Hence why he is regarded as a pioneer. In a sense he was one of the first to employ his techniques. Unlike Bodoni, who reflected a sense of order within simplicity, Tory reflected a sense of chaos within the borders by using art and words.

In regards to contemporary graphic design, it suggests the use of Tory's style in certain genres of writing. Although the economical form of writing is often more utilized, complex and intricate designs interwoven with lettering is still used today as some contemporaries bring back the enthusiasm for personal style and originality. Expression after all is something that continues within anyone and still lends itself to wish to be explored and expressed. People like Tory will always continue to exist and there will always be a medium with which to express their styles.

Just like Tory, Bodoni also has a place in modern society. His work is well-known and respected for its clarity and simplicity. The exact opposite of Tory in terms of style and execution, Bodoni is seen as one of the greatest typographers.

The son of an impoverished printer, Giambattista Bodoni was born in Saluzzo, northern Italy. In his youth he gained apprenticeship at the Propaganda Fide. The Propaganda Fide was a Catholic press specializing in the printing of missionary materials in native languages for global use. It was in this press Bodoni learned punch cutting. Though interested in learning and growing as a printer in Rome, his interested faded with the suidice of Costantino Ruggeri, his mentor and director of Propaganda Fide.

Sometime after he took charge of the Stamperia Reale, the official press of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, accepting the role of private printer to the court (34)[footnoteRef:6]. His printing of official documents and publications along with self-initiated projects, spurred his aesthetic and style which would later be considered modern. His preliminary design inspiration was Fournier le Jeune, whose foundry provided type and adornments to the Stamperia Reale during Bodoni's time at the press. Like Tory, Bodoni's design and printing were considered high quality, so much so that he gained an international reputation. [6: Mingardi, Corrado, and Giambattista Bodoni. Bodoni. Parma: Grafiche Step, 2008.]

In 1790 through invitation from the Vatican, Bodoni would have established a press for the printing of classics, but stayed in Parm after the duke countered with an offer of greater independence, expanded facilities, and the freedom of printing for other customers. His work was so popular within his existing community, people associated high quality printing with the name Bodoni. He offered what few could offer at the time. He portrayed letters in a way that was legible and easy to read.

It is in Bodoni's background one can understand why he developed such a simple and classic aesthetic within his typography. To him importance of clarity outweighed significance of artistic expression. He wanted to do his job well for the people he worked for and knew that if project a clear, concise font and lettering, he would gain the favor of his employers and gain a reputation within the printing world. His apprenticeship in Italy also emphasized a traditional style which was further maintained through the efforts of Bodoni.

Bodoni was indicative of the changing cultural and political climate of the time. No more was the lavish designs of before popular. The revolution against the French monarchy spurred renewed interests in classical forms of Roman and Greek art. (48)[footnoteRef:7] During the 1790's people rejoiced at witnessing a revitalization of ancient styles of text. [7: Mingardi, Corrado, and Giambattista Bodoni. Bodoni. 48.]