Emotional labour and occupational stress in airline cabin crew

Managing Stress & Emotions at Work

The practice of exhibiting emotions while working in a position for which one receives compensation is not conceptually new, by any means (Al-Serkal, 2006). Workers have long understood that projecting a friendly or upbeat attitude can foster positive work outcomes, such as larger tips, commendations made to superiors, and repeat business. What is conceptually new is the practice of requiring that employees display particular emotions as part of their performance evaluation and employment contracts (Al-Serkal, 2006). Moreover, the defining of the preferred emotions and articulating them to employees is not as straightforward as one would imagine.

Wide cultural differences exist with respect to emotional display, interpersonal space when communicating, showing deference, and the like. Employees from different cultural backgrounds are likely to interpret the attitudinal recommendations of their common employer in distinct ways (Hahn, 2000; McCarty & Shrum, 2001). This means that employee training and performance evaluation must necessarily adopt a multicultural orientation. Certain industries and sectors encounter these types of complexities more than others. The airlines sector, for one, faces multicultural challenges across several dimensions (Al-Serkal, 2006). Airline customers can originate from anywhere across the globe. International carriers generally must specialize to the extent that customers from several distinct regions or nations are well and comfortably served. Indeed, employees may represent widely different cultures in order to provide culturally sensitive services.

In addition to the multicultural dimensions of the airlines business, the nature of airlines work -- daily, moving masses of people safely and efficiently to their destinations around the world -- can be quite stressful (Al-Serkal, 2006). Stress is a given for many types of airlines employees -- and it certainly is omnipresent for the cabin crew, or airline attendants (Al-Serkal, 2006). Essay content following this introduction will identify and discuss sources of job stress and emotional labour, discuss the relation between cultural perspective and work-related stress, and provide strategic tactics and ideas for addressing managerial and organizational issues raised by these variables.

Occupational Stress

The concept of job stress is fairly well understood as it has been well researched and reported in the literature, and popular periodicals commonly provide articles to the general public that interpret scientific research about job and life stressors. The phenomenon referred to as emotional labour may be generally less well and broadly understood, if only because it has achieved a level of distinction as a behavioral requirement for some types of compensated labour. Strazdins (2000) argues that emotional labour is to some degree present in any interaction (in Al-Serkal, 2006: 10), which would suggest a continuum of emotional labour as an aspect of quotidian affairs. According to Al-Serkal (2006), the term "emotional labour" was coined by Hochschild in 1983 in "The Managed Heart." Because Hochschild's definition is seminal, economical, and broadly applicable, it is considered here: "…the management of feeling to create a publically observable facial and bodily display; emotional labour is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value (in Al-Serkal, 2006: 18; Hochschild, 1983: 7). The assumption that underlies the contemporary conflict about emotional labour in the workplace is that when an employee must behave in a certain way -- acting as if they are experiencing a particular feeling -- while feeling to some degree in a different way, it generates internal stress.

Kinman (2009) explored the relationship between emotional labour and three strain outcomes: Job satisfaction, psychological distress, and work-life conflict. The findings of the Kinman (2009) research indicate that the emotional labour in which service sector workers (flight attendants and call center representatives) engage "may have negative implications for their well-being that extend beyond the work context" (128). Moreover, the research outcomes suggest that the mode of delivery of emotional labor -- whether face-to-face or voice-to-voice -- may also predict work-related strain. Importantly, independent of the mode of delivery, employees experiencing "greater dissonance" between the emotions they expressed and the emotions they felt when interacting with customers reported psychological distress at higher levels (Kinman, 2009: 130).

Grandey (2003) distinguishes forms of emotional labour, or acting "as if" one is experiencing a particular emotion on the job: Surface acting and deep acting. According to Grandey, surface acting occurs when an employee presents a particular facial expression, while deep acting occurs when an employee manages to actually modify their inner feelings (2003). Taking a dramaturgical perspective, Grandey argued that emotional labour is fundamentally a performance by the employee as dictated by the organization. As such, the employee performance can be critiqued or rated. Grandey found that surface acting didn't necessarily result in high delivery ratings to the extend that deep acting did; however deep acting was not related to stress, but surface acting was experienced as stressful by employees.

Brotheridge and Taylor (2006) reported that cross-cultural differences have been observed with respect to emotional labour in flight attendants working multicultural flights. While no differences were observed in flight attendants' faking emotions, there were differences in the degree to which they hid their feelings and employed deep acting. Interestingly, deep acting was associated with both vertical and horizontal collectivism (Brotheridge & Taylor, 2006).

Circadian rhythm disruption is a well-researched source of stress for avian employees. Although much of the research has been directed toward pilots and air-traffic control personnel, some researchers have examined the impact of circadian rhythm disruption in flight attendants or cabin crew members. Grajewski, et al. (2003) found that, as measured by overnight melatonin rates, women flight attendants experienced misalignment of their circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycle that is likely to be a "chronic occupational condition," and that simply resting after each duty period is insufficient for realignment. As a result, female flight attendants are assured of experiencing sleep deprivation and may experience concomitant reproductive health problems. Fatigue, reduced alertness, and commission of errors are likely sources of occupational stress for members of the cabin crew.

Hahn (2000) found that locus of control impacted stress levels in low-level service workers, but also prompted differences in reactivity to the workplace stress. Hahn (2000) focused on four stress producing paths that are associated with locus of control: coping choice, coping effectiveness, exposure, and reactions. When grouped according to their tendency to internalize vs. externalize reactions, internals were angrier and had more health-related symptoms when they experienced low locus of control, but externals experienced more depression under the same conditions. Hahn (2000) argued that this effect was likely related to the different patterns of coping strategies that were evidenced by the two groups.

McCarty and Shrum (2001) found that individualism and economic status were related to beliefs about the inconvenience of certain demands and regulations, while collectivism and locus of control were related to beliefs about the importance of those demands and regulations. This study is relevant to the policy and practices put in place by employers with regard to the emotional display requirements of their employees. The association of locus of control to collectivism is particularly noteworthy as it implies that cultural influence about complying with different job demands may be variously perceived as within an employee's sphere of control when their worldview tilts toward collectivism (McCarty and Shrum, 2001).

Sonnentag and Natter (2004) studied the work recovery patterns of flight attendants in their home towns and when they are far from home to determine the relation of these patterns and practices to the well-being of the cabin crew. Recovering from job stress is "particularly problematic" for flight attendants as their jobs require them to adapt quickly to and function effectively in different time zones, continuously practice emotion work, and cope with high levels of physical work and critical discernment when they are sleep deprived (Sonnentag and Natter, 2004: 367). Moreover, opportunities to recover are marked by an inability to "maintain a regular private life," such that they must often spend their off-work recovery time far from home (Sonnentag and Natter, 2004: 367).

Notably, when spending recovery time in hotels far from home, flight attendants spent less time in job-related tasks, and did not engage in household or childcare activities. When flight attendants did spend time on job-related tasks during their hotel recovery times, they found it harder to disengage with their work, experienced "marginally lower levels of vigor and higher levels of fatigue at bedtime" (Sonnentag and Nutter, 2004: 386). Overall, Sonnentag and Natter (2004) found that flight attendants' recovery while overnighting in hotels tended to be of better quality than when recovery took place at home with one exception. When flight attendants engaged in social activities while off-work and away from home, their recovery suffered and they tended to experience depression at bedtime in the evening of the days in which they engaged in social activities while traveling (Sonnentag and Nutter, 2004: 386). Sonnentag and Nutter suggest this is an artifact of the need for flight attendants to continuously engage in emotional labour while working. Thus, the sources of occupationally caused stress that have been identified and discussed include: 1) Emotional labour, 2) locus of control issues, 3) sleep deprivation and circadian rhythm disruption, and, 4) patterns and practices of work recovery.

Conclusion

Employees' social orientation toward collectivism and individualism can facilitate or hinder the implementation of policies and procedures related to emotional labour and the impact of other job stresses, such as intensification of work demands (Hahn, 2000; McCarty & Shrum, 2001). Employers are likely to substantially increase the success of their employee training programs when cultural influences are considered and embedded in training curriculum (Brotheridge & Taylor, 2006; Shavitt, et al., 2012). Moreover, a range of organizational strategies can be employed to support implementation fidelity to policies (Grajewski, et al., 2003).

Employers are encouraged to train employees about stress management interventions, peer support programs that may include the encouragement of healthy emotional catharsis through team debriefing opportunities (Brotheridge & Taylor, 2006; Shavitt, et al., 2012). Providing employees opportunities to craft appropriate responses to work demands, using human agency to address the need for acting "as if" they feel positively toward customers and the work situation. Deep acting has been shown to have substantive cultural correspondence, with horizontal and vertical collectivism serving as pivotal variables. Early and realistic portrayal of job demands, particularly with regard to emotional labour and job stressors may contribute to greater job satisfaction and improved coping skills (Sonnentag & Natter, 2004). Emphasizing and encouraging positive off-work activities through training or incentive programs can facilitate rest and work recovery, which are crucial to adequately offsetting the fairly unique work demands experienced by members of a cabin crew (Sonnentag & Natter, 2004). Finally, employers must recognize that implementing cost-cutting strategies that diminish customer service and enjoyment of the travel experience set the company up for strong competition from other airlines (Curley & Royle, 2013). It is a shortsighted tactic and not an effective long-term strategy, as evidenced by a number of airlines that have backpedaled to a less aggressive profit focus. Moreover, target market segmentation would suggest that differentiation of airline services will result in capture of higher-end consumer loyalty, which is a long-term competitive strategy.

Recommendations for managers, supervisors, and corporate policymakers are shown in brief form in Table 1.

Table 1. Occupational Stressors by Cultural Perspective by Managerial Implications

Occupational Stressors

Cultural Perspective

Managerial Implications

Emotional Labour

Mode and duration of delivery of emotional display, and the type of emotional display required, particularly in face-to-face situations play a major role in the experience of stress. Kinman, G. (2009).

Stress management interventions, peer support programs, team debriefings, encouraging healthy catharsis. Different types of training & interventions are needed due to heterogeneity. Kinman, G. (2009).

Deep acting is more effective and less stressful than surface acting. Grandley (2003)

Employee perception of fairness of emotional display rules was a key moderator of the relationship between the performance of strain & emotional labour. Substantive participation by employees in establishing organizational display policies enhances a sense of personal control over this aspect of their work, and help reduce perceptions of emotional dissonance when communicating with customers. Grandley (2003)

Deep acting is associated with both horizontal and vertical collectivism. Brotheridge and Taylor (2006); Shavitt, Torelli, and Riemer (2012).

Some societies are horizontal (valuing equality) whereas others are vertical (emphasizing hierarchy). To this, add the individualism and collectivism dimensions. Deep acting is an attempt to conform to accepted standards as put forth by the employer. It stands to reason that deep acting is more likely to be practiced by those who are want to blend in and not make waves. Deep acting is likely to be acceptable to those people who tend toward horizontal individualism and vertical individualism when they see it as a way to stand out or to demonstrate self-reliance. Brotheridge and Taylor (2006); Shavitt, Torelli, and Riemer (2012).

Locus of Control

Coping strategies differed for externals and internals, which were related to their different patterns of reactivity. Hahn (2000).

Robust relations are seen between collectivism and locus of control, and individualism and economic status.

McCarty and Shrum (2001).

Cabin crew from individualistic societies may expect more social support and autonomy than their job allows, which can lead to poorer role adjustment. Unilateral changes in policies for emotional labour resulted in diminished job satisfaction.

Al-Serkal, A. (2006).

A focus on early realistic portrayal of job demands, particularly with regard to emotional labour and job stressors may support greater job satisfaction and reduce burnout. Hahn (2000). McCarty and Shrum (2001).

Definitive cultural differences exist with regard to locus of control issues, and employers would do well to establish councils or working groups that enable cabin crew to contribute to workable solutions for balancing a profit orientation to customer service. Al-Serkal, A. (2006).

Sleep Deprivation & Circadian Rhythm Disruption

Americans are unlikely to make adjustments regarding this problem. "Americans are a nation of tired workers…indirect costs resulting in stress-related, reduced workplace productivity were estimated at U.S.$150 billion." Grajewski, et al. (2003).

Training programs and incentive programs that underscore the significance of work recovery can encourage cabin crew to make off-work time choices that will support rest and renewal. Grajewski, et al. (2003).

Work Recovery Patterns & Practices

Study participants were employed by German, Austrian, or Swiss airlines. Most participants did not have children, and 38% lived alone. The activities in which the participants engaged, and how they subjectively felt about those activities are core to recovery and well-being. Sonnentag & Natter (2004).

Cabin crew need to experience activities as opportunities to recover from stress. Individual differences are important here, as culture will influence choices, which can impact recovery. Physical activities, sports, & exercise had positive impacts on vigor, depression, and well-being. Social activities need to support recovery and not be demanding. Social support & rewarding personal relationships can counter social withdrawal during off-work time. Sonnentag & Natter (2004).

Managerial Actions

It is important not to underestimate human agency, which is characterized by intentionality & choice. Attempts to control worker identity are precarious & presumptuous due to pluralistic, fluid, complex, and contradictory identities, and constraining or sustaining social contexts. Curley & Royle (2013).

Recognize the contradiction in intensifying work loads, following cost-cutting strategy while simultaneously advertising increased service quality & driving up customer expectations. Training to the strengths of employees can maintain a degree of skilled emotional labour, encourage professionalism & cabin crew autonomy. Curley & Royle (2013).

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Managing Stress & Emotional Labour at Work