Memory-based systems and approaches

Memory

Based on Memory

Memory is basically a process through which all the relevant information is encoded, accumulated, and the recovered when needed. In first step we receive information from our surrounding, friends and family and we add it up in our memory. Here we start screening the relevant data. After that we store that relevant data or information for a certain period of time which is basically the second step. The last step is recovering or retrieval. This usually takes place when we need to use that particular information which is stored in our memory. We have to locate it and then we need to bring it in our consciousness. At times, these retrieval process failed since the information we are trying to recall was very old and was not of that much importance which can be stored for ages.

However, the memorization is a process which includes learning some important information and keeping it stored in our memory for a certain time period.

Memory has its own effect in different era and it can be altered with the passage of time exactly like the way we want.

Introduction to Memory

Memory is the power of the mind to remember things. According to Hacking:

"Memory has always had political or ideological overtones, but each epoch has found its own meaning in memory" (Hacking, 1995, p. 200).

If you look back into the history then you can see that the collective memory is divided into five periods. The first period is all about the collective memory of the people without writing. Oral culture represented a society in which people either didn't write or writing and understanding the symbols was quite limited usually by a small group of people.

Antiquity is the second period in which the major emphasis was on the oral memory and beside it written memory was also discussed.

The third phase is seen by creating a balance between the oral and written memories and by altering their function. Oral transmission was an important part of this period. Writing was considered as a small addition to memory and the collected knowledge used to make the memory worthwhile.

From 16th century and up till now, it is considered as the fourth phase in which progress has been made in written memory linked with printing and literacy. 18th century was quite a different period if we talk about the history of memory because in this period the meaning of memory immediately extended but soon it was all over.

Current phase, the last phase, revolutionary changes can be seen which resulted in expansion of memory. In today's world, people don't have very rich memories and they do not dwell in their pasts very much.

Oral Culture Memory

The oral culture depends upon the knowledge that is stored. Though, for the growth and to spread the knowledge, such societies greatly depend upon 'ethnic memory' that differs with the literary societies' memory in terms of precision, orientation, and content. In oral cultures, people thought that there were no changes and things remained the same and this is because unconsciously the oral transmission continually builds up and readjusts the past to accommodate the present.

In oral culture, the past is connected to the present for the sake of its existence. The past remains alive as long as it is needed by the present and due to this limitation, the response time of such societies is quite limited and therefore the longer periods cannot be differentiated.

"An oral culture is not held in everybody's memory store. Memories vary as does experience. Bits may be held by different people" (Goody, 1998, p. 94).

In oral cultures, the variability and originality of memory is connected through the means of formation and to spread memory available in those societies. In literary cultures, the selection of memory and its plurality is an outcome of phonetic writing ability so that the cultural innovation can be generated.

In today's world, a person can belong to several different groups but in an oral culture that was not an option a person can belong to a single group and that memory of the single group kept the identity of the individual up-to-date. There is a similarity between the memory in oral and modern societies that we can observe how the general rule of structural amnesia works that tells us the way to control and guide the memory using social institutions. In both the societies, to remember and forget something is not random but it's selective. This process of structural amnesia suggests that "the strength and weakness of recall depend(s) on a mnemonic system that is the whole social order" (Douglas, 1986, p. 72).

Art of Memory

In this phase, more control was gain on oral memory. Oral memory kept on conveying the sense of the past and that cannot distinguish between the historical and mythological. The ancient philosophers, viewed memory as a basis of immortality and knowledge. The greatest Greek philosophers were not completely successful in integrating history and memory.

The technique, art of memory, gives a fundamental role to mental images. Without an image there is no thought and the meaning of that recollection is apprehending something as an image. To locate each element in imaginary places of memory in order to remember so that it can be easily recover in its appropriate place by actually looking in those places is mnemotechnics. The art of memory has the high status in the old times because it was practiced by elite class like orators and scholars. In Greece culture, memory is considered to be the cause of all arts and sciences where as in Roman culture "memory was placed at the heart of all teaching, learning and thought" (Samuel, 1994, p. vii).

In oral culture of Roman and Greek antiquity, the major portion of what people wanted to communicate had to be dedicated to memory and consequently they follow a procedure to aid remembering that made the memory into an imaginary space and this was art of memory. Many people admired the power of memory.

Memory was seen as a basis of reality because it permitted to recall the condition of blessed happiness. As memory played an important part of virtue therefore for the formation of moral character the technology of memory is considered a very important feature.

Memory in Pre-Modern Age

Oral transmission still played an important role. For the preservation of knowledge, trained memory was considered an important means.

In this age, memory was still considered as a kind of book in which the images were imprinted even though the scholars were using the writing technique. "Generally, it can said that throughout most of the Middle Ages, literates elites shared with pre-literary folk a common reliance upon oral transmission to teach most of what they knew about the past" (Eisenstein, 1966, p. 53).

At that time people didn't think that history can brought change into their lives and it was hard to differentiate between the past and the present. People believed that behind all the historical processes there is God and they do whatever God asked them to do. The thought that the past and the memory cannot be used to understand the present or the future but it tells there is some divine power behind it.

With the development of print culture, the image of the antiquity became clearer and it seems that it is less resembling with the present. The scholars on the other hand immediately understand the historical facts and they do not need any sort of interpretation. From sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onwards a new meaning was given to historical facts. Letters were used to preserve the memory, books were printed and libraries were built which created the importance of written documents among the people. In the middle Ages, memory was praised greatly because it helped in preserving the knowledge. But in eighteenth century, the written material was not considered safe and instead the people thought that it is safer to use the vocal context in order to preserve the knowledge.

Then in the end of the Middle Ages, people preferred experience, observation, reason and intelligence over art of memory and that brought an end to it and after that the mythical and the historical can be clearly differentiated. After all those developments there was some fundamental issues and disputes that who would be the owner of the memory and whose ideas of the past will got the opportunity to be printed in official monuments and memorials.

Memory and Modern Society

"The progressive mass of information produced by increasingly specialized disciplines and the multiplication of books meant that memory, however finely trained, was no longer an adequate container of knowledge" (Yeo, 2001, p. 80-7).

The people started building libraries, archives and museums and they also published encyclopedias and dictionaries with new motivation to preserve knowledge as soon as they realized that the individual memory won't be enough for the expansion of knowledge.

In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the British people used the public monuments to express their civic and national pride. In the end of the nineteenth century, research experiments were carried out on memory. In this period, the memory dominated by the symbol of evolutionary development in nature. In nineteenth century, many new technologies were developed such as radiography, photography and cinema cameras to recall and preserve memory. "Memorializing the achievements of individuals considered as members of families is the earliest popular use of photography" (Sontag, 2001, p. 43).

These new ways to store the historical events increased the archives and documents. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a feeling of anxiety could be seen in the people because of the interruption in the use of the traditional forms of memory.

In traditional societies, people could easily interpret the past and their behavior and they could easily and openly carry their past and its meanings. On the other hand, in modern societies, the people were disconnected from their past which made their past less transparent and it made difficult for them to understand their past. This caused the increased in the crisis of memory and as a result it caused great disturbance for the European societies when they were going through industrialization, modernization and urbanization.

Memory in Today's World

Modern societies provide people an opportunity that they can associate themselves with different groups and they can keep several set of different identities. In such cultures, social memories are not limited but they overlap and are multilayered.

The end of the twentieth century comes with the memory crisis. Modern societies are described as "terminally ill with amnesia" (Huyssen, 1995, p. 1) because the only thing they remember is the anniversaries and celebrations from the past and they don't have any historical knowledge. On the other hand they are also described as the people who wanted to go to the museums and exhibitions.

Nowadays it is possible that we can access libraries and archives digitally. There are new ways to produce, store, and collect memories. "These new developments have been preparing us for the arrival of cosmopolitan memory" (Levy and Sznaider, 2002).

Physiological Memory Systems

The study of cultural memory depends upon previous psychological physiological version of individual memory. According to Kandel, "our memory may be located in the synapse and to neurophysiology with the claim that changes in synaptic function are fundamental in the formation of different types of memory."

There are two approaches to understand the body the anatomical and the physiological and the difference between the two approaches is that the former state that the memory is located somewhere in brain and the latter state that it consists in a global mental function. The anatomical approach has extreme implications therefore the experience of memory was then explained using physiological approach.

The fundamental issues faced during the memory investigation is the appropriate position of departure that is whether memory needs to be structurally approached or functionally? The initial approach, distinctiveness of traditional anatomical medical research traces the place where memory is situated with the brain. However, the second one tries its best to define the purpose and the function of the memory stored. Both of these approaches are said to be complementary but this precise relation between physiology and anatomy of the memory remain as it is in question and open for debate.

The difference between the approaches of physiology and anatomy in order to understand the body can be outlined in the work of them most important people in medicine history, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) and William Harvey (1578-1657)

After physical understanding the memory, number of findings has been generated and memory is widely accepted as physically dynamic system. The physiology and anatomy of memory are quite understood now as compared to twenty years ago. Edelman and Kandel's approaches of micro and macro neural complement in various ways logically as well as complementary to the memory problem.

Cultural memory and communicative memory

There are some other types of memories as well out of which we will be discussing Cultural memory and communicative memory.

Communicative Memory

This memory is basically the collective output of our day-to-day communication. Our day-to-day communication can be categorized as thematic instability, reciprocity of various roles, and disorganization. It usually take place among different individuals such as partners, for example, who can basically change their roles as in speaker and listener in which one is sharing a joke, gossip, experiences or their memory. These usually occur on several occasions such as while you are travelling through a plane, or sitting in a waiting area or may be over the dinner. Most of the time, it takes place within your home. This type of communication give rise to a type of memory which is divided in to 2 sub-types; a) socially mediated, b) group related.

Every person memory comprises with communication with other people. Here "other" people are referred as groups of people who are united together because they share same identity or perception which is created because of their past experience. These groups can be categorized as your family, neighbors, professional group, affiliation and associations and political parties etc. all of us belong to these types of groups and ultimately we develop some great collective memories which are usually shared when this group of people unites together.

Cultural Memory

Cultural memory is different from communicative memory or we can simply put it in this way that it is the opposite of communicative memory; it is distinguished by the distance from day-to-day. Cultural memory is based on its fix points; its perspective does not alter or change along with the passage of time. These fix points are basically driver from some fateful events which occurred in the past, the memory which is preserved by the help of cultural formation like texts or monuments as well as institutional communication like practices, recitation and observations. These are known as "memory figures." Even after ages if only a part of that particular event come to your mind or you encounter any other specific thing associated with that event the whole thing will come right away in your mind just like a movie clip.

Characteristics of cultural memory

1. Identity concentration -- or we can say association with a group. Cultural memory maintains a pool of knowledge which is referred back by a group in order to have awareness about their peculiarity and unity. According to Hans Mol, " the inevitable egoism of cultural memory that derives from the "need for identity" (Hans Mol) takes on dangerous forms, if the representations of alterity, in their relation to the representations of identity (self-images), become images of an enemy" (Hans Mol, 1976)