Asian Studies the Three Most

Asian Studies

The three most influential philosophies on Chinese culture, history, and politics include Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Each of these political philosophies advises a different approach to leadership and citizenship and provides differing means of creating order in society. Each of these strains of thought also influenced ways of viewing human beings, human nature, and government. Of these three, Confucianism might have had the upper hand in influencing Chinese history, culture, and politics. According to Wm. Theodore De Bary, editor of Sources of Chinese Tradition, Confucianism "has become an inseparable part of the society and thought of the nation as a whole, of what it means to be a Chinese," (15). However, a study of Chinese political philosophy would be incomplete without equal reference to Daoism, the mystical brother of Confucianism that nevertheless had an immense impact on the evolution of Chinese history. In fact, in many ways Daoism and Confucianism go hand-in-hand, and both philosophies are inextricable from ancient or modern Chinese society. Legalism initially arose out of Confucianism, in some ways a reaction against it. Unlike Confucianism or Daoism, Legalism is relatively unconcerned with philosophy and more concerned with practical means of governance and control. De Bary detects a sort of "anti-intellectualism" among the Legalist philosophers and explains how and why the legalists strived to divorce politics from persona (122). In spite of the differences between Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism, all three of these classic Chinese philosophies shared elements in common and all three powerfully influenced the development of Chinese government and culture.

The person who sparked the Confucian philosophy was in his lifetime unsuccessful in promoting his theories and ideals. The man known as Confucius was born in the sixth century BCE to a poor family. Faced with the prospect of self-education and self-reliance during turbulent times, Confucius strived to make order out of the chaos of feudalism. "With energy and utter selflessness, Confucius set about to bring order and peace to his age," (De Bary 16). Order and peace would become cornerstones of the Confucian philosophy. The underlying mechanism by which society could attain a state of order and peace was via the cultivation of virtue. Virtue is defined through moral actions and behavior and Confucian writings often refer to specific examples of virtuous behavior. According to Confucian thought, morality and virtue must be a part of the political philosophy of a society if that society is to enjoy peace and order. In spite of the reliance on morality, Confucianism is not a religious philosophy. References to cosmic order do not belie a Confucian theology or metaphysics. Confucian philosophy is inherently realistic even if it tends to also be idealistic.

The role of government in a Confucian society is to mimic cosmic order. Because of the emphasis on the creation and preservation of order in Confucian thought, the philosophy is preoccupied with social structures and hierarchies. The efficacy of social hierarchy and structure in modern Chinese society is largely a reflection of the pervasiveness of Confucian ideals throughout Chinese history. One of the natural by-products of Confucianism is therefore the creation of social strata, of elite and learned people who will naturally assume positions of power over the unlearned and peasant classes. Leadership is paternalistic in a Confucian society. Persons in positions of power must be treated with authority, respect, and deference in an orderly, or Confucian, society. By extension, Confucianism is replete with social rituals and prescriptions for "proper" forms of behavior and speech.

Next to Confucianism, the most important and influential native philosophy of the Chinese has undoubtedly been that of the Taoist school," (De Bary 48). Although not commonly thought of as a political philosophy, Daoism had a remarkable influence on Chinese political history. Daoism picked up where Confucianism left off in terms of creating an ideal society. For the Confucian, morality and social order are the ultimate aims. For the Taoist, morality and social order are only side-effects of living according to the Tao, or the Way. Morality is not a set of prescribed behaviors but rather, is the natural by-product of living in harmony with the universe. Taoism has none of the specificity of Confucianism in its teachings and does not advise specific actions or institutions. The foundation of Daoism is a mystical philosophy outlined in texts like the Tao-te Ching, also unlike Confucianism which is determinately pragmatic. However, like Confucianism, Daoism is also replete with ritual. Taoist rituals are not of the social type, though, but rather, of the mystical variety.

One of the sharpest philosophical differences between Taoism and Confucianism is the Daoist emphasis on non-interference, which is often misinterpreted as purposeless passivity. When Daoism is applied to government and politics, the philosophy would translate into international policies of non-interference, which should ideally eliminate cause for strife and war. Taoism does propose that the ideal leader is a sage, a wise person familiar with the Way who can instruct the less educated and ignorant and help all persons achieve personal and interpersonal harmony. Because of its insistence on passivity and gentleness and because of its avoidance of concrete rules, Daoism is inadequate for a complete political philosophy. However, for these same reasons, but also because of its respect for the paradoxes inherent in human existence and its ability to transcend the petty grievances of politics, Daoism is an ideal philosophy of life.

Of Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism, the latter is the least idealistic of the three great Chinese philosophies. Legalist thought holds a more pessimistic view of leadership than either Confucianism or Taoism, both of which support and advocate wise, strong human leadership. According to the Legalist, no human being can be truly entrusted and sages are few and far between. In order to create a workable government, the legalist suggests subscription to the rule of law. The law is held above human leadership in terms of its efficacy in governing societies. However, legalism is as concerned with order as Confucianism is and the legalists propose a strong centralized government.