Stable Life of Crime Biosocial

Stable Life of Crime

Biosocial Criminology

Discuss the developmental trajectory associated with an early age of onset and a stable life of crime

Environmental influences that can give rise to a life of crime begin in the womb: not simply with genetics but also with the environmental influences to which the developing fetus is subjected. Prenatal influence to excessively high levels of testosterone; to toxins (such as lead, alcohol, and cigarette smoke); malnutrition, and stress (such as physical trauma to the developing fetus or simply if the mother is subjected to stressful conditions like living in a crowded city) are all associated with higher levels of criminality in offspring (Beaver 2009: 157-175). Birth complications; low birth weight as the result of prematurity or other factors; and exposure to environmental toxins and malnutrition perinatally can be equally significant in terms of giving rise to criminal behavior, even controlling for other social factors. The developing brain of a fetus and young child is highly malleable and exposure to negative stimuli such as cigarette smoke can have a greater influence upon the child than upon an adult. Chronic stress is likewise correlated with the development of criminal behavior (Beaver 2009: 177).

However, as powerful as these influences may be, it is equally important to remember that future criminal behavior cannot exclusively be predicted by genetics or even epigenetics. Even in twin studies, there is not a perfectly reliable association between later criminal behavior and genetic factors. Nor are all forms of criminality equally heritable. For example: "although both are influenced by genetics, heritability estimates for adult criminality are stronger than those for juvenile delinquency. In fact, numerous studies have found only a moderate genetic effect for delinquency, and instead have found that environmental variables exhibit stronger effects" (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle 2008: 172). This suggest that during the vulnerable period of adolescence, when children are most influenced by their peer group, environmental influences can play a more powerful role in contributing to delinquency. "Because youths are being flooded with hormones, their behaviors and emotional states can become more tenuous and unstable," and even the most well-adjusted adolescent is likely to be more prone to bad decision-making and risk-taking than an adult (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle 2008: 238). However, for adult criminality, the influence of the genetic factors inherent within the individual's makeup takes on greater significance than the environment. Certain genes may be switched on or off by developmental processes (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle 2008: 172). Certain genes also seem to be more strongly influential in predicting criminal behavior in some environments than others. Thus, understanding criminality requires an understanding of genetic factors, not simply epigenetic factors (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle 2008: 173). It has been shown in animal experiments that with the 'correct' environmental influences, the brain structures of animals with the same genetic predispositions can become entirely different, morphologically speaking (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle 2008: 175).