Buddhism: The Concept of Life

Buddhism: The Concept of Life After Death in Theravada and Mahayana

The Concept of Life after Death in Theravada and Mahayana

The core differentiation between the Theravada and Mahayana school of thought in Buddhism lies in the stress on the individual attainment of salvation and enlightenment in Theravada, as opposed to the sense of common or universal salivation that is the goal of Mahayana. This central difference has a profound and subtle affect on the various interpretations of death and the afterlife in Buddhism. The present study provides the background to this issue and attempts to present an overview not only of the differences between these two schools of thought, but also attempts to establish fundamental similarities relating to the concept of illusion, salvation and nirvana, which form an integral part of the Buddhists view of the afterlife.

The study also investigates the different theories and views related to the period before and after death. This refers to the fact that Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist writings not only describe the potentiality of life after death, but also describe the way in which the treatment of the dead can impact the progression towards that end, and how life acts influence the continued cycle of life and death. This study, then, is designed to assess the variations in views of life after death from the Theravada and Mahayana perspectives.

1. Introduction

Understanding the concept and meaning of death and the afterlife in Buddhism is completely dependent on an understanding of the world view that underlies and motivates all Buddhist discourse. "Understanding Buddhist death and the afterlife is another way of understanding the Buddhist worldview of what exists and what perishes in both the visible and invisible worlds."

The essence of the Buddhist world view and the understanding of death and the afterlife are succinctly expressed by Becker.

The central problem in early Buddhism was how to escape the continuing cycle of birth and death. In Buddhist terms, this world of suffering and rebirth is called samsara, and the escape from it, nirvana. The question becomes: What is nirvana, and how can we reach it? www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97526887"

These are essential aspects that will be discussed in this research dissertation. Throughout the research this central aspect became clear- that an understanding of the Buddhist view of the afterlife, as well as the difference between the various schools of thought in Buddhism, was inextricably linked to the foundational world view and stance of the Buddhist perception of reality. This study will therefore attempt to show, not only the differences between Theravada and Mahayana, but will also show how the underlying concepts of suffering, illusion, reincarnation, enlightenment and nirvana are interdependent and follow the overall religious trajectory of Buddhist thought and praxis.

2. Background

In analytical terms, in order to fully understand the conception of the afterlife in any of the Buddhist school of though it is essential to first discuss the essential Buddhist concepts and world view. The word of the Buddha stresses the primary and essential background to all Buddhist thought. This refers to the First Noble Truth of Suffering in the Pali Scriptures.

What now if the Noble Truth of Suffering? Birth is suffering; Decay is suffering; Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain Grief and despair are suffering; not to get what one desires is suffering; the Five Aggreges of Existence are suffering.

This passage stresses the foundational precept of Buddhism in that the common world of reality is seen as a dimension of pain, suffering and illusion which must be transcended. Both birth and death are therefore seen as entrance and exit to the world of Samsara, which is the ordinary world of suffering.

Death is " the parting and vanishing of beings out of this or that order of beings, their destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life period, dissolution of the aggregates of existence. The discarding of the body; - this is called death."

For the original Buddhist mind the cause of this suffering lay in the fact of a false or illusionary perception of reality. Salvation and 'releasement' from this suffering therefore implies the need for knowledge that can 'see through' or transcend the illusionary state of man's existence. Concepts such as the ego and self are part of the illusionary structure of existence and also must be transcended in the search for enlightenment.

2.1. Desire

The five "aggregates of existence" referred to in the above quotation refers to "...bodily form, feeling, perception (mental formations) and consciousness."

Therefore desire and "craving "for the world of the body, senses or mind are all part of the illusionary nature of this existence, which inculcates suffering. The process of enlightenment or the movement away from this suffering in illusion is though the movement away from desire for the things of this world.

All of these central aspects can be summarized in the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. The first of these truths is, the observation that human existence is filled with a great deal of suffering. People suffer from pain and illness, from hunger, from death and the fear of death, and from unpleasant feelings such as anger and depression. Many of these unpleasant experiences, death for example, are inevitable.

The Second Noble truth refers to the central cause of all suffering - which is created not by the external world but by human perception and the mind itself. A central concept which is intimately related to the understanding of the illusionary nature of desire is the term attachment.

The significance of attachment is core to understanding Buddhist thought and is also to the meaning of the afterlife in both Theravada and Mahayana. Attachment refers to things that people cling to, things they feel they must have to be happy. There are a number of types of attachments. People can be attached to sensory pleasures, such as comfort, sexual stimulation, or good food. People can also be attached to their opinions or beliefs. Another attachment is to the idea of self. People cling to their image of who they are, and expend great amounts of energy defending and bolstering that image.

The Third Noble Truth states that suffering is not inevitable. The Fourth Noble Truth deals with transcendence or the escape from this world of suffering. In simplistic terms transcendence of suffering refers to the removal or denial to attachments as having no reality. This may be achieved though knowledge or by"... gaining clear insight into the process by which attachments lead to suffering."

As stated, the truth of suffering cannot be escaped in Buddhism and is central to the understanding of other aspects, such as nirvana and enlightenment.

The Truth of Arising (Samud-ya) This, O Monks, is the Truth of the Arising of Suffering. It is this thirst or craving (tan-h?) which gives rise to rebirth, which is bound up with passionate delight and which seeks fresh pleasure now here and now there in the form of (1) thirst for sensual pleasure, (2) thirst for existence, and (3) thirst for non-existence.

2.2. The structure of the Buddhist universe.

The Buddhist cosmology and view of reality divides the universe in the two main categories of the physical universe, which is described of as a receptacle or 'container' (bh-jana), and the 'beings' (sattva) or life-forms which reside in it.

The material or physical universe is created by the interaction of the various elements - water, fire, air, and space or "k"?a. The interaction of these various elements creates numerous 'world-systems'.

These systems undergo cycles of modification and evolution. The central significance of this in terms of the present study is that these world systems, like the idea of the human self are essentially impermanent. Even though a world system may exist for billions of years, yet they, like human bodies, are eventually destroyed.

Various central concerns relating to the afterlife lie in this area of understanding the impermanent nature of all existence and in the uselessness of any form of attachment to manifestations of these illusions. This aspect applies both to Mahayana and Theravada schools of Buddhist thought. The idea of the self and the ego are central concepts whose illusionary nature has to be overcome in order for enlightenment to occur, 2.3. Rebirth

Central to all Buddhist thought on death and the afterlife is the concept of reincarnation or rebirth.

Within the various world systems as described above are numerous "realms" of rebirth. Commonly, six of these realms are discussed in the Buddhist Scriptures and are described on the 'wheel of life' (bhavacakra).

Depiction of the Buddhist Universe: "The circle in the middle represents the flat surface of the earth which was thought to support four large continents of different shapes. Above this are the heavenly mansions inhabited by the gods, and below the hells and other realms of suffering. Thailand. AD c.1820"

The six realms also refer to thirty one overlapping levels - however a discussion of this aspect is strictly outside the ambit of this study.

The main aspect that is important in understanding the different Buddhist views of the afterlife is that rebirth and reincarnation refer to a process of spiritual evolution towards liberation (Moksha) or enlightenment. It is through the process of death and rebirth that the knowledge is gained which will finally liberate the individual being from the central cause of all suffering itself - the cycle of death and birth. Essentially, it is only through knowledge that this can be achieved in most Buddhist schools of thought.

The rationale behind the importance of reincarnation as a process that is required to escape the centrality of suffering is discussed by Keown as follows. "... The Buddha was pointing out that human nature cannot provide a foundation for permanent happiness.... Suffering is thus engrained in the very fabric of our being.... until the condition is recognized there can be no hope of a cure.

Keown 47)

2.4. The development of the types of Buddhism

The early more conservative and doctrinaire form of Buddhism was known as Theravada Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism literally translated means Old (Thera) Way (vada).

The Pali Canon is its main source of authority,

Theravada was closely aligned to the words and thought of the Buddha and interpreted them in a strict and formalized way. It is also known as the "lesser Vehicle." "...also pejoratively referred to as Hinayana -- the Lesser Vehicle -- for it emphasizes personal liberation/salvation in contrast to the collective liberation of Mahayana Buddhism (the "Greater Vehicle")."

From its origins Buddhism began to spread to other parts of India. As it expanded it encountered and took cognizance of new customs and ideas. The early Theravada view was therefore challenged by numerous issues - the central issue being the elitist or non-populist idea that only a few of the elect could achieve enlightenment and not the majority of people. This also became a central criticism of the Theravada school of thought as it was seen as being less compassionate or concerned with the suffering of others. This was eventually to lead to the establishment of the Mahayana school of thought.

In the end opinion polarized on a range of issues and the two groups went their separate ways in what became known as the 'Great Schism'. In due course both the Elders and the Universal Assembly fragmented into a number of sub-schools. All of these have now since died out, with the exception of the Therav-da, which is descended from the Elder tradition. However, many of these early schools left a legacy in the contribution they made to a revolutionary new movement which became known as the Mah-y-na.

However, both the Hinayana and Mahayana schools are based on the essential Four Noble truths and the Eightfold Path attributed to the Historical Buddha.

The Mahayana means the 'Great Vehicle', which refers to its concern with universal salvation. The formative years of this movement are estimated to be around the time of Christ or roughly between 100 BC and AD 100.

The highest ideal in the Mahayana tradition is an aspirant dedicated to the salvation of the world. This is different to the emphasis on personal salvation in the Theravada. Importantly this ideal finds expression in bodhisattva. The bodhisattva is "... someone who takes a vow to work tirelessly over countless lifetimes to lead others to nirvana. Everyone who subscribes to the Mah-y-na technically becomes a bodhisattva, but for most this is just the starting point of their long course of spiritual development.

The central course in the development of Mahayana Buddhism, as has been suggested was when a number of groups began to question the Theravada perspective on the Buddha's teachings. Mahayana Buddhism was uncomfortable with the Theravada emphasis on desire for personal enlightenment, what is sometimes referred to as the arahant or 'saintly' ideal. If Buddhism was to be driven by compassion then to strive for one's own enlightenment could be seen as selfish; true Buddhism would be more concerned about enlightenment for all. It was for this reason that this Buddhist tradition referred to itself as 'the greater vehicle' and referred to the Buddhism that preceded it as the Hinayana or ' lesser vehicle'

The above is of course a very cursory overviewed of the two schools. There are many other important aspects. For example, the Mahayana school also covers a variety of schools ranging from Pure Land Buddhism to Zen.

Major differences between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.

As has already been referred to in the above section, the two Buddhist schools of Theravada and Mahayana can be differentiated by their central differences on certain issues. However the core difference between these two school of thought lies in the emphasis on liberation or enlightenment for all mankind in Mahayana thought; while "... In Theravada, supreme attainment is represented by the arhat, a spiritual master who has achieved enlightenment by his own efforts."

The essential difference in the Mahayana is a central and prominent emphasis on compassion for others and a concern for saving the entire world and not just oneself.

A the Mahayana school promises salvation to all who sincerely seek it -- monk and laity alike. The Mahayana tradition embodies the Bodhisattva Ideal -- the desire to liberate all beings from suffering. For this purpose, the Mahayana school posits the existence of numerous Bodhisattva, the "compassionate ones," who act as universal saviors of the common people.

In crude terms one could say that Mahayana is more democratic in a spiritual sense, while the Theravada view is elitist and more selective. This central difference has important ramifications for spiritual elements, such as the view of Nirvana and life after death, as it relates to enlightenment in Buddhism.

This difference is clearly seen in the ideal of the Bodhisattva, or spiritual hero, in Mahayana.

Bodhisattva is a being, divine or human, who, upon reaching the threshold of enlightenment, chooses instead to remain behind, enduring the endless cycles of life, death, and rebirth (samsara) in order to help all other beings achieve enlightenment. In an act of self-sacrifice, delaying personal liberation, the Bodhisattva takes a mighty vow of dedication to this truly superhuman goal. The celestial Bodhisattvas are among the stars of the pantheon of Mahayana Buddhism, the best known of them the objects of profound devotion. But the path of the Bodhisattva is open to human beings as well, who may also take the great vow and dedicate themselves to the benefit and liberation of all beings.

The concept and cult of the Bodhisattva is a therefore central to an understanding of Mahayana. It should also be noted that it would be incorrect to assume "Theravada does not also uphold the ideal of compassion and they believe that one gains merit from acts of mercy, kindness and generosity."

One of the central criticisms of Theravada from purely religious point-of-view is that it is not "selfless" enough and that the elitist philosophy shows signs of the retention of elements of self and ego. However, this critique is argued against by the proponents of Theravada who emphasize that "...their religion does not recognize a self at all -- famously, as noted in the canonical Dhammapada, verse 279, sometimes translated as "all phenomena are not-self."

There are also other differences between the two schools of thought. While the Theravada only accepts the Pali Canon, the Mahayana " goes beyond the core doctrine contained in the Theravada Tipitaka in several important respects. It accepts as canonical other sutras not in the Tipitaka; this literature is known as the Buddhavacana (Revelation of the Buddha). The most notable Buddhavacana texts are the Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus of the Good Law Sutra, or Lotus Sutra), the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Avatamsaka Sutra (Garland Sutra), and the Lankavatara Sutra (the Buddha's Descent to Sri Lanka Sutra), as well as a collection known as the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom).

There is also an essential difference between the two schools in the way in which they view the Buddha. While the Theravada sees the Buddha as a man who was been supremely enlightened, the Mahayana views the Buddha as a manifestation of a divine being.

This view was formalized as the doctrine of the threefold nature, or triple body (trikaya), of the Buddha. The Buddha's three bodies are known as the body of essence (dharmakaya), the sum of the spiritual qualities that make him Buddha; the body of communal bliss, or enjoyment body (sambhoga-kaya), a godlike form revealed to the Mahayana initiate during contemplation; and the body of transformation (nirmana-kaya)

Mahayana therefore believes in an infinite number of transformation bodies of the essential Buddha. However, these and other differences also tend to revolve around the central aspect of the idea of personal and selective enlightenment as opposed to enlightenment for all.

A further complex area of differentiation is the important Mahayana doctrine of the emptiness (sunyata) of all things. This is an area which is strictly outside the scope, or space, of this dissertation but forms an essential aspect to be considered in Mahayana thought. According to the philosopher Nagarjuna, "Since all phenomena in the world of experience depend upon... constructs of reason, they are purely relative and therefore ultimately unreal. The Absolute, on the other hand, is empty in the sense that it is totally devoid of artificial conceptual distinctions."

In essence the goal of Mahayana thought is to go beyond or transcend the opposites or the duality between the real and the illusionary and to achieve unmitigated enlightenment. In this sense the Mahayana school also resolved certain philosophical contradictions in earlier Buddhist thinking.

4. The issue of Life after death

The subject to death and the afterlife are of vial importance for the Buddhist spiritual view. This is mainly due to the fact that death and the fear of death are seen as central aspect of the illusion which prevents enlightenment.

Buddha's teachings about death can be summed up as follows: all life is forever vulnerable to suffering; everything is constantly changing; while whatever is born must sooner or later die, there is no fixed self that dies; and as long as one is completely absorbed in grief there can be no release from the fear of death.

As referred to in the Background section, death is seen merely as process that human beings go through which is part of the illusionary nature of our perception of reality. Death is referred to in the words of the Buddha as "...the completion of their life period, dissolution of the aggregates of existence. The discarding of the body; - this is called death."

All of the issues referred to the overview of the distinctions between Theravada and Mahayana relate to the subject to death and the afterlife. Importantly, these differences in doctrine and view are also reflected in the views of death and dying. The trajectory of Theravada thought is very different in many ways to the concepts and praxis of death and dying when compared to the Mahayana school of thought. In Theravada there is "Very little research and knowledge on the process of dying and death. Usually, the dying persons are advised to meditate on impermanence, suffering and emptiness. "

In Mahayana on the other hand attention is focused much more on the details and process of the dying process; as well as to the period immediately following death.

The Vajrayana School is particularly meticulous in these areas. There are many inner and external signs manifested by people before they die. There is heavy stress in doing transference of merit practices in the immediate few weeks following death to assist in the deceased's next rebirth.

Furthermore there is in the Mahayana schools and groups an intense concern with the "... in-between stage after death and before rebirth..."

This aspect is almost completely ignored in Theravada.

The focus on death is however important for both schools in terms of its significance as the ultimate illusion which prevents enlightenment. Death is essentially the extinguishing of the false self or ego which allows for the progression towards affirmation through enlighten. " When Buddha entered that regionless region he called it Nirvana, where one's individual identity has already been extinguished, and where there is no fear of death, only perfect mindfulness."

The story of Siddhartha illustrates the link between death and enlightenment and also casts some light on the very complex question of Nirvana or that which exists beyond death. While seated under the tree of Wisdom or Bodhi Tree, and determined to stay there until he received insight into enlightenment, Siddhartha was tempted by Mara, the symbolic embodiment of death.

But centered in his meditation Siddhartha withstood the assaults and seductions, and then spoke to Mara: Pleasure is brief as a flash of lightning or like an Autumn shower, only for a moment.... Why should I then covet the pleasures you speak of? I see your bodies are full of all impurity: Birth and death, sickness and age are yours. I see the highest prize, hard to attain by men -- the true and constant wisdom of the wise. His tempter gone, Siddhartha sank into deeper and deeper dimensions of concentration. With mind purified, his supple body immovable, he recalled all his former modes of existence. At this, his omniscient (all knowing) eye opened and he saw the truth of the chain of causation (the inter-dependence of consciousness, body, mind, senses, contact, feeling, desires, attachments, old age, sickness, death). He entered the region of the Deathless and he proclaimed his song of victory:

Through many divers births I passed

Seeking in vain the builder of the house.

But O. framer of houses, thou art found

Never again shalt thou fashion a house for me!

Broken are all thy beams,

The king-post shattered!

My mind has passed into the stillness of Nibbana (Nirvana)

The ending of desire has been attained at last!

The above section from Kramer is quoted at length as it suggests the central importance of death in all schools of Buddhism. In effect the passage points to the fact that the Buddha died to all desire- even the desire to be enlightened. It is this complex and subtle understanding of death that is applicable to all Buddhism. The ultimate death is not a physical one but a dying of all desires and attachment which opens the way to Nirvana and enlightenment. Therefore all ignorance is expelled and there is only reality. It is this sense of death which is the essential important component in both Theravada and Mahayana philosophy. This refers to the ultimate goal of Buddhism, which is the destruction of death itself.

Gone was his old identity; gone were his old desires and fears; gone were questions about the meaning of old age, sickness and death; gone was the one who searched. In their place was the Buddha, the one who was awake, the one who had ceased craving, who had ceased clinging, the one who died to the fear of death to become eternally present. Buddha had passed beyond the three states which keep humans unliberated, namely being attached, being unattached and being non-attached.

4.1. The ritual of death

The death practices among Buddhists vary greatly between countries and schools of Buddhism. As mentioned, one of the central differences between Mahayana and Theravada philosophy is that Theravada largely tends to disregard the complexities of death ritual; while the Mahayana are more concerned with the period before and immediately after death.

This is due to the fact that in the Mahayana school of thought the death process is seen as vital to the idea of a "good rebirth" and also to avoid the dying person from being trapped by illusions at the time of death which might lead him or her away for the path towards enlightenment.

In most schools of Buddhism there is a general agreement as to the importance of death rituals. "Buddhists generally agree that the thoughts and mental condition of a dying person are of primary importance. If a person dies in panic, fright, uncertainty or anxiety, it is believed that an unpleasant rebirth could result."

For example, practices of Burmese village Buddhists contain elaborate ritualistic processes aimed at the dying and dead person.

A when one dies the body is taken by the male members of the family and washed. The body is then wrapped in burial clothes, and the thumbs and big toes are tied together in hair from a deceased member of the family. A coin is placed inside the mouth and at the head; a vase is placed holding a flower so that the dead may still worship Buddha.

The most well-known manual of death and dying is the Bardo Thodol or Tibetan Book of the Dead. Like Burmese Buddhists, the Tibetans also believe that the soul is conscious in the vicinity of the body for a number of days. During this period intense instructions are given to the recently deceased person as to the visions which he might encounter.

Chanting to the dead also serves an important function; namely to "...drive away the ghost of the dead, and, second, to confer merit upon the soul of the dead person. This, it is believed, will make the dead person's passing from the material to the spiritual world easier."

It is important to realize that the foundations of Buddhism stress the importance of death and dying in terms of the larger implications with regard to the reincarnation.

A the Buddha taught that the action...of the dying person was in a contiguous cause-and-effect relationship with the birth of a new being. He used the term rebirth, as opposed to the notion of reincarnation that might imply that a single soul was reincarnated in several consecutive bodies. Rebirth, on the other hand, suggests a causal continuity between one birth and the next without requiring that the two be identified as the same person.

5. Conclusion

There are certainty many differences between the various schools of Buddhist thought under discussion. From the relative austerity of the Theravada Buddhism we find the later development of Mahayana complexity. "On the semi-popular level of the Mah-y-na tradition there have been the eternalization, absolutization, and trinitization of the Buddha, the creation of supernal Buddha-lands without number, and a variety of ornate ritual patterns. "

Becker in his study also notes that there is an essential difference in the approach to death from the earlier forms of Buddhism to the later forms such as the Mahayana; with the advent of for example, the Pure Land Buddhists claimed and Buddha fields. The early forms of Buddhism were more monastic and concentrated on extreme forms of self-discipline and control. This led to the criticism that the Buddhism did not offer adequate access to the paths of enlightenment for the ordinary person. This, and the fact that the development and growth of Buddhist led to new influences, resulted in the development of Mahayana Buddhism. These factors also had an impact on the view of death and the afterlife which was to be more experiential and open in the case of Mahayana.

However, at the deepest level the understanding and conception of the afterlife in both these schools of Buddhism show more similarities than differences. Possibly the words of the Buddha relating to the illusionary nature of death sums up the underlying Buddhist view of death which is germane to both the Mahayana and Theravada schools of thought

The Buddha said of death:

Life is a journey.

Death is a return to earth.

The universe is like an inn.

The passing years are like dust.

Regard this phantom world

As a star at dawn, a bubble in a stream,

A flash of lightning in a summer cloud,

A flickering lamp - a phantom - and a dream.

Vairacchedika 32.

6. Potential areas for research.

The issue of death and the afterlife provides a plethora of research possibilities for modern scholarship. One aspect that would provide an interesting discussion is the relative importance of the concept of the self and its meaning in both schools of thought. There is considerable contention regarding the view that Theravada is in fact more self-centered when compare to the Mahayana.

Other areas which that may be considered are the link between Mahayana ethos of universal enlightenment, considering that both religions developed in approximately the same historical period. Another possibility for research which may be fruitful is the application and relationship with postmodern discourses and Buddhism. This area may revolve around the postmodern relatively of the self and ego and its comparison to Buddhist thought.

7. Bibliography

Akira, Hirakawa. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana. Trans. Groner, Paul. Ed. Paul Groner. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.

Becker, Carl B. Breaking the Circle Death and the Afterlife in Buddhism. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1993.