Police militarization and use of force in US and Canadian policing

Canadian vs. American Policing

This work intends to compare and contrast policing in America and Canada. Toward this end, an extensive review of relevant literature will be conducted. The literature in this review will show that policing in the United States are similar and yet are very different as well. The work of Hodgson, et al. (2005) entitled: "Public Policing in the 21st Century: Issues and Dilemmas in the U.S. And Canada" states that public police institutions are "now being challenged to develop policies and practices that meet the consumer needs and expectations of the increasingly diverse 21st century U.S. And Canadian publics. These challenges include population changes, the 'homeland security' agenda, police militarization, the public's fear of crime, new types of crime, revitalizing police management and operations, revamping police training, and improving police-community relations." (Hodgson, et al., 2005) the fact is that police agencies are "contending with the lure of becoming more like military operations." (Hodgson, et al., 2005)

Roles that are "militarized" are being adopted by many law enforcement agencies "in their capacity as first responders to acts of terrorism on the home front." (Hodgson, et al., 2005) Yes, these principles are "often in conflict with the principles and philosophies of community-based, problem-solving; and consumer-service oriented policing models." (Hodgson, et al., 2005) Hodgson et al. relates that the "traditional reactive model of policing emphasizes responding to crimes after they occur without much regard for preventing crime or solving community problems before they escalate into crimes. In contrast, proactive and problem-solving policing strategies includes methods and programs to prevent and deter crimes from occurring." (Hodgson, et al., 2005) Hodgson states that Police act as the gatekeepers for the entire criminal justice system. They determine which individuals enter the web of social control, the criminal justice system, and under what circumstances." (Hodgson, et al., 2005) Stated to be identified "key core problems that are endemic to policing" are those of:

1) corruption;

2)the misuse of force; and 3) racial profiling. (Hodgson, et al., 2005)

I. POLICING in the UNITED STATES

The work of Parent (2006) entitled: "The Police Use of Deadly Force: International Comparisons" states that the societies of Canada and the United States are "similar in many ways, recent research has noted significant differences in the rates of extreme violence between the two nations." Extreme violence is held to include "the police use of deadly force, the murder of police officers by an assailant, the homicide rate of the general population and violent crime such as firearm robberies." (Parent, 2006) the findings of the study reported by Parent states that police officers in the United States "is substantially higher than for police officers in Canada, and in many other nations. This may explain why police officers in the United States utilize deadly force in greater frequency than most western nations." (2006)

Amnesty International work entitled: "Police Brutality in America" states that "there the work entitled: "Civilian Policing Capacity for Peace Operations -Private Section Solution or Permanent Capacity" states that the United States, unlike Canada "with its Royal Canadian Mounted Police...does not have a national police force. Federal law enforcement agencies are highly specialized, and thus are not appropriate sources of civilian police. (Gantz, 2004) Gantz writes that the U.S. should "support the establishment of a standing civilian policing capacity at the UN..." And secondly that the U.S. "should consider creation of a national policing capacity, including a constabulary capacity, which could be applied to post-conflict settings." (Gantz, 2004) is a widespread and persistent problem of police brutality across the U.S.A. Thousands of individual complaints about police abuse are reported each year and local authorities pay out millions of dollars to victims in damages after lawsuits." (Randall, 1998)

Randall relates that police officers have "beaten and shot unresisting suspects, they have used batons, chemical sprays and electro-shock weapons; they have injured or killed people by placing them in dangerous restraint holds." (1998) Some of the instances of brutality stated by Amnesty International and related by Randall (1998) include the following: (1) shooting of unarmed suspects fleeing from minor crime scenes; (2) instances when suspects held in custody are fired upon after already being apprehended or restrained; (3) car chases here vehicles are fired upon when drivers and occupants are unarmed; (4) unprovoked and unwarranted shootings during police stakeouts; (5) torture and ill-treatment inside police stations; and (6) deaths while in police custody following dangerous restraint procedures, including the "hogtie," where the ankles are bound from behind to the wrists. (Randall, 1998)

Other instances include excessive force that has been used against individuals with mental illness or those who are disturbed and who are engaged in behavior that is non-threatening in nature. Furthermore, Randall relates that many times bystanders become victims of violence of the police. Randall (1998) states the fact that racial minorities "bear the brunt of police brutality and excessive force in many parts of the U.S.A." Abuses that have been reported include "racist language, harassment, ill-treatment, unjustified stops and searches, unjustified shootings and false arrests...The problems are not confined to inner cities." (Randall, 1998) Additionally, black motorists "are far more likely than whites to be stopped and searched without cause, and a significant number suffer injury at the hands of the police." (Randall, 1998) Generally, police officers and police departments in the United States "guilty of acts of brutality...in most cases go unprosecuted and unpunished." (Randall, 1998) Randall (1998) relates that a "code of silence operates in many police departments, in which officers fail to report instances of brutality, or cover them up." Randall's work highlights three primary areas of concerning relating to policing in the United States:

1) death by less-than lethal weapons is high;

2) a pattern of racial discrimination exists; and 3) a system that protects the abusers when they are police officers. (Randall, 1998)

III. POLICING in CANADA

The work of Tim Newburn entitled: "Handbook of Policing" states that while the tradition of policing in the United States and the "direct influence of Britain on the Canadian system, from the beginning differences between the U.S.A., Canada and England and Wales have been recognized." (2003) Newburn states: "Differences between the current police systems of England and Wales, the U.S.A. And Canada are best understood in a historical context." (2003) the development of the systems of police in the countries of Canada and the United States were not so different the primary difference according to Newburn "was the relationship held with the British government. While the U.S.A. had attained independence in 1788, before the establishment of paid police in Britain, Canada's independence was ratified in the North America Act 1867. Before then, early policing was directly influenced by the British government; afterwards as part of the British Empire, Canada continued to be subject to British influence." (Newburn, 2003)

Police forces in Canada were town forces paid and established approximately the same time they were established in England. According to Newburn, of greater significance was the "policing of the vast underpopulated areas of rural Canada, where control of the Indian and Inuit populations, protection of the territory from foreign incursions and the need to impose order within the goldfields required distinctive forms of policing, based on the colonial model." (2003) the police force from this view was held as "ideal for exerting order across the vast territories of Canada, whose sheer scale made law enforcement, public administration and the assertion of sovereignty difficult." (Newburn, 2003) the police force in this area was known as the "North-West Mounted Police" whose influence extended early [in the] twentieth century...taking on security and counterespionage services during the First World War and, in 1919, helping to break the Winnipeg general strike."(Newburn, 2003)

In 1920 this force was renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and expanded throughout the 1930s. During the 1930s, this police system is described as "chaotic...replaced by one in which officers earned wages almost one third above the national average. (Royal Commission on the Police, 1960; as cited in Newburn, 2003) Following World War II changes occurred in British policing and the relationship between the police and local communities and between the government and police in what has been a time of reform for policing. During the 1980s, it is stated by Newburn that Canada was characterized by "significant urban disorders and a bitter miners' strike." (2003) Additionally, policing at this time was "very visible public order policing..." (Newburn, 2003) Simultaneously, public approval of policing was on the decline.

The work entitled: "Is the Future of Community Policing in Canada at Risk in the Wake of Recent International Terrorist Attacks and Increasing Violent Crimes Associated to Organized Criminal Activities" states that the Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is committed to the vision of 'Safe-Houses - Safe Communities'. (2008) There are stated to be five key strategies utilized toward the advancement of Community policing:

1) deployment;

2) community revitalization;

3) legitimacy;

4) customer service; and 5) problem-solving. (Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2008)

These guiding principles comprise a unique "service delivery model." (Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2008) it is stated that both internal and external clients and partners were consulted with in developing these principles, which include:

1) public accountability through realignment of policing services in reflection of the concerns and needs of the community;

2) decentralized, neighborhood services approach;

3) partnership and collaboration;

4) integrated service team approach, and client centered service delivery;

5) Consultation, transparency and participation;

6) proactive approach (anticipating and forecasting community issues;

7) community problem-solving;

8) custom designed services delivery for each unique community and culture;

9) custom designed service delivery for each community and its unique culture;

10) quality service through assessing the satisfaction and needs of client and in measuring how these needs are actually met as well as closing the gap between 'expectations and deliverables;

11) principles centered leadership;

12) advanced risk management philosophy that redefines failure, yet identifies and controls high-risk activities; and 13) a commitment to employee continuous development. (Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2008)

Stated as a solution is "sharing best practices" which will "expose those involved including the RCMP to the global problems and solutions..." identified. Specifically stated is: "It is globally recognized that the Community Policing philosophy is the fourth evolution of policing in our modern era. Although we have entered this new era, Community policing has been overshadowed of late, in the wake of recent international terrorist attacks, and organized crime activities. We cannot let the fear of violent crime dictate an erosion of the community policing model and allow us to retreat back to the comfort of the previous evolutionary phase, the "professional model." A "sharing best practices" program will allow the police agencies to share this concern with the global policing community. Now, more than ever, there is a requirement to embrace community policing as a model where community concerns can be re-assessed and citizen mobilization be enhanced to assist the police in seeking solutions." (Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2008)

One of the primary issues that police enforcement has to cope with in Canada is the policing of the Aboriginals in Canada. There are 614 Indian bands that are federally acknowledged in Canada which own approximately 2.95 million acres of trust land. The following crime statistics are stated for the Aboriginals: (1) the homicide rates was seven times higher than the Canadian average; (2) the assault rates was eight times higher than the Canadian average; (3) the sexual assault rate was seven times higher than the Canadian average; (4) the mischief (vandalism) rate was six times higher than the Canadian average; (5) the rate of total property offences was comparable to the Canadian average; (6) the rate of disturbing the peace was 12 times higher than the Canadian average; (7) the offensive weapons rate was seven times higher than the Canadian average; (8) Breaking and entering (burglary) was the single most frequent youth offence type, followed by mischief and theft; and (9) Violent crimes tended to be committed by someone known to the victim (56%) such as a relative, friend, or acquaintance, compared with 41% in cases of violence committed against non-Aboriginal people. (Savvas, 2008)

SUMMARY and CONCLUSION

Policing in the United States and Canada is quite different in nature in that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Force in Canada is a national police force while the U.S. does not have a national police force. While Federal law enforcement agencies in the United States are specialized, these forces are not appropriate for civilian law enforcement. Canada is more influenced by Great Britain law enforcement principles than is the United States. Three primary issues that this study has noted concerning policing in the United States are those of: (1) death by less-than lethal weapons is high; (2) a pattern of racial discrimination exists; and (3) a system that protects the abusers when they are police officers. (Randall, 1998) Five key strategies that are adhered to by the Canadian police force are those of: (1) deployment; (2) community revitalization; (3) legitimacy; (4) customer service; and (5) problem-solving. (Richmond Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2008)