Causal factors and influences in personality development

Personality and Personality Disorders

Causal Factors and Influences in the Development of Personality

Personality Development

Personality refers to the characteristic pattern or behavioral style of a person as manifested by his external and internal properties (IGNOU, 2012). These properties are distinct and unique to every person. His external properties are directly and outwardly observed, such as his dress, speech, actions, postures, habits and gestures. His internal properties are overt, such as motives, beliefs, intentions and feelings that can only inferred by others. An individual's personality can, therefore, be perceived and shaped by the observations and inferences made from the outside according to his response patterns to outside stimuli (IGNOU).

Concept and Criteria, Nature of Personality

The concept of personality is derived from the person's characteristic responses (IGNOU, 2012). It is derived in three ways. The first is by subjective impressions made in outsiders by the person's response pattern. The second is by the objective description of his overt responses, open to empirical research. And the third is by the organismic view whereby his personality is seen as the inner pattern of his characteristics. This means that personality resides in the person; the psycho-social systems of adaptation are organized; personality is dynamic, not static; the organizational pattern within determines how far and in what way he can adjust to his environment; and that adjustment is unique to him alone (IGNOU).

The organismic view establishes the four fundamental qualities of personality, which comprise its nature (IGNOU, 2012). These are consistency, the development of personality structure, potential for change, and integration. Consistency or stability means that a person's style of action can easily be identified in most every situation because of his consistent characteristics or traits. The development of his personality structure means that from birth, his interactions with the environment builds or alters his mental structure progressively. The parts of his mental structure also becomes differentiated until they become an integrated whole. Contrary to earlier concepts about the rigidity of the human personality, humanistic theories contend and have shown that it is not only capable of organization but also of change. And integration or organization is part of the natural and normal process of personality development. As a matter of fact, disorganization of functions of parts constitutes a diseased condition (IGNOU).

Types of Personality

Psychological researchers Carl Jung, Katherine C. Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myer formulated four main personality type indicators (Steele & Young, 2011; Murie, 2010; Zardus et al., 2011). These four are extrovert or introvert, sensing or intuitive, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving. These types are used to determine career suitability, employee management and relationships. Being extroverted or introverted depends on how one's energy source is used. An extrovert loves the crowd, large gatherings and people in general. He tends to seek social situations. An introvert, on the other hand, is happy enough being alone. He often finds company draining and wants to be alone to ponder and recharge lost energy. Sensing or intuitive refers to plans of action. A sensing person wants to think logically, using concrete evidence and inputs. He is focused on what is currently happening. In contrast, an intuitive person prefers not to be burdened with too many details and makes decisions, based on gut feelings. The thinking or feeling person proceeds similarly. A thinking person analyzes everything logically, making sure there are no uncertainties and no errors. A thinking person avoids confrontations and arguments and refuses to discuss his feelings. A feeling person, on the other hand, openly expresses his feeling, devotion and passion, sometimes to an extreme point. He tends to please people and is viewed as an emotional person. And judging or perceiving persons relate with rules differently. A judging person is comfortable with rules and regulations. He easily sticks to them. He plans ahead and finishes what he has started. On the other hand, a perceiving person is more spirited and easy-going. He makes impulsive decisions sometimes without careful thought. He follows his mood in accomplishing his tasks (Steele & Young, Zardous et al., and Murie).

Personality Disorders

A personality disorder consists of psychiatric conditions wherein the person's long-standing behaviors, emotions and thoughts greatly deviate from the expectations of his culture (PubMed Health, 2010). This deviation incurs him serious problems at work and in relationships. The general types of personality disorders are grouped into three according to their clinical similarities. These are Cluster A, Cluster B, and Cluster C A group follows for personality disorders not otherwise specified, mixed and of unusual patter or Personality NOS. Cluster A includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders, described as odd and eccentric. Cluster B includes histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial and borderline personality disorders, described as dramatic, emotional or erratic. Cluster C includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, described as anxious, apprehensive and fearful (PubMed Health).

The Fourth Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders lists the 10 specific personality disorders as paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial, borderline, avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders (PubMed Health, 2010). The paranoid personality is typically suspicious, rigid and argumentative and constantly on his guard. His condition is not psychotic. The schizoid personality is unable to form healthy social relationships and is indifferent towards such relationships. He shows little need for love and a sense of belonging. This is considered the precursor to schizophrenia. The schizotypal personality is reclusive, oversensitive, and eccentric. He has odd thoughts, perceptions and speech. His condition may be genetically similar to schizophrenia. The histrionic personality is immature, emotionally unstable and dramatic. He seeks attention and has poor sexual adjustment. The narcissistic personality gives exaggerated self-importance and the need for approval. He has a weak and low self-esteem and is unable to perceive other people's perspectives. An antisocial personality violates the rights of others without remorse yet can be charming, intelligent or cruel. The borderline personality is impulsive, habitually angry, unstable, and unpredictable. He fails to complete the process of identity formation. The avoidant personality desires attention but is lonely. He has insufficient social skills or social phobia. He is often confused with the schizoid. The dependent personality is extremely dependent on others. He panics when alone and lacks self-confidence. He lets others do the decisions for him. And the obsessive-compulsive personality is too concerned with rules, order and control He lacks warmth and is over-conscientious. He lacks the true obsessions or compulsions of the obsessive-compulsive personality. He is rigid and a perfectionist (PubMed Health).

Causal Factors of Personality Disorders

These are biological and psychosocial factors (Kopeikin, 2000). Biological factors predispose a person to particular disorders. These may be inherited constitutional predispositions, which interact with the environment. Childhood interactions may trigger the development of psychosocial factors, such as workload, work deadline or the lack of control of work (Kopeikin).

The antisocial personality and psychopathy are often assumed to be identical (Kopeikin, 2000). Both suffer from poor or inadequate conscience development. They both act out their tensions yet appear sincere. They are irresponsible and impulsive, take what they want and possess the ability to impress as well as exploit others. They are liars who understand and use the weaknesses of others. They reject authority and are unable to maintain stable relationships. Yet they win friends easily. They can also be violent towards friends and their own family. They display repetitive predatory behavior (Kopeikin).

Criteria that Distinguish Other Psychiatric Disorders from Personality Disorder

These are biological factors, genetic influence (Kopeikin, 2000). The psychopath or antisocial personality is deficient in emotional responsiveness or conditioning. He does not learn from punishment. He seeks stimulation and resents the delay of gratification. He suffers from cognitive functioning. Early parental loss, severe parental rejection, the lack of parental affection and consistency in dispensing reward and punishment are the causal factors behind psychopathy as distinguished from personality disorder (Kopeikin).

Approaches to the Assessment and Identification of Personality Disorder

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder or DSM-V Research Planning Work Groups sought alternative dimensional representations in response to reports of dissatisfaction over the existing categorical classification system for personality development (Pukrop, 2008). Suggested are four different strategies, namely dimensional representations of existing categories, dimensional reorganization of diagnostic criteria, integration of personality disorders with dimensional models of general personality structure, and identification of spectra of dysfunction, cutting across personality, axis I and axis II disorders (Pukrop).

Up for discussion with these suggested models are two relevant aspects (Pukrop, 2008). The first will be the issue of stability and changeability of personality and, thus, the question of childhood and adolescent antecedents. And the second will be the search for neuro-scientific foundations of personality disorder traits, which can be integrated by an endophenotypic approach. These matters require a heuristic framework according to the vision of an etiologically-based classification system for personality disorders and maybe also for other psychiatric syndromes (Pukrop).

The diagnostic criteria for the 5th edition of the DSM of Mental Disorders require substantial rework on the current assessment and identification of personality disorders (Connors, 2011). Changes in the types of disorder need to be integrated into the pathological personality trains. They also integrate with the levels of impairment of "personality functioning," The presentation of personality disorders from their currently rigid categories to the new model will have to look very different. The goal is to make it most useful to clinicians and beneficial to patients. The Manual contains the standard classification of disorders used by mental health and other health professionals for their diagnostic and research needs and other purposes. DSM-V will contain the latest scientific interpretation of the etiology, characteristics and relationships of mental disorders. It will be published next year as the culmination of more than a decade's rigorous labor among hundreds of experts in the U.S. And abroad (Connors).

The proposed criteria for personality disorders will be the derived from field trial evaluations in actual clinical settings throughout the country (Connors, 2011). Public comments are also encouraged and entertained. The Work Group recommends that the 10 categories be reduced to 6 specific personality disorder types. These are antisocial, avoidant, borderline, narcissistic, obsessive/compulsive and schizotypal. A diagnosis within these classifications must first meet several conditions. A person must be significantly impaired in two areas of personality function, namely self and interpersonal. Self refers to the patient's view of himself and their life goals. Interpersonal refers to the person's understanding of other people's perspectives and form close relationships. Evaluation scale is from mild to extreme. The work group also wants the pathological personality traits to be present in at least one of 5 broad areas, whether the person is antagonistic vs. able to get along with others or impulsive as against capable of thinking of possible consequences of his action. Work group chair and psychiatry professor Andrew Skodol said that the major innovation is the recognized importance of personality function and personality traits. Personality pathology is now seen as a matter of degree (Connors).

The work group's recommendations draw from the shortcomings of the current criteria, discovered by a decade's longitudinal studies and other clinical research (Connors, 2011). Behavior can be intermittent and even change in time. The proposed criteria may block an accurate diagnosis and treatment. In the meantime, impairments in personality functioning and pathological personality traits tend to stabilize over time and remain consistent, whatever the circumstances. The proposed criteria require both stability and consistency (Connors). #