Child Abuse Prevention and Intervention

Child Abuse Prevention and Intervention

Review of the Relevant Literature

The sad irony of the continuing high incidence of child abuse in the United States today is the fact that the nation has historically prided itself on recognizing the individual rights of every citizen. According to Dodds (2006), "Americans are shocked by the treatment of women in Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, and other foreign countries; they are embarrassed by their nation's own history of slavery and female disenfranchisement. Americans consider themselves superior in this respect; they have risen above these injustices and now inhabit a modern society that should be the envy of and blueprint for the rest of the world" (p. 719). Unfortunately, the research quickly makes it clear that the United States has failed to protect the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness of the country's most vulnerable citizens, its children (Dodds, 2006). This author emphasizes that children lack the capacity to defend their rights on their own, and, "Every day, thousands of children are beaten, starved, abandoned, and sexually abused. Courts and social services try to step in when they can, and when society hears of the most horrific cases, individuals are quick to express their outrage and anger" (Dodds, 2006, p. 719).

When something is made a priority, it is by definition supposed to improve; regrettably, in the case of child abuse, the problem remains and seems to be getting worse instead of better. In this regard, Dodd (2006) asks, "In a nation that seems so dedicated to honoring the individual rights of each and every human being, why do so many adults feel entitled to treat children this way?" (p. 719). While the pundits continue to wring their hands and researchers continue to study the phenomena, millions of children are experienced the lifelong effects of some type of child abuse today. Child abuse typically assumes one of three forms: (a) physical, - sexual, and/or - emotional or psychological (Shull, 1999), and their incidence is discussed further below.

Incidence and Implications of Child Abuse in the U.S. Today.

Between the years 1980 and 1993, the incidence of children that were reported one or more times to the public authorities for maltreatment more than doubled from 1.1 to 2.3 million cases in the United States (Gilbert, 1997). In 1993, an estimated 532,200 children, or 7.9 per 1000 children, suffered from some type of abuse, 204,500 of them (3.0 children per 1000) suffering actual, demonstrable harm or incidents so severe that harm was assumed; moreover, emotional abuse increased at a greater rate from 1986 to 1993 than physical or sexual abuse (Shull, 1999). According to Shull (1999), "The total number of emotionally abused children increased by 183% and the incidence rate per 1000 children rose 163%, in what is viewed as a real increase in the rates of abuse and not a statistical aberration from heightened sensitivity of abuse reporters" (p. 1665). In reality, these alarming statistics may not reflect the entire picture either. For example, the rate of reported child abuse fatalities has increased each year, with an estimated 1,400 child fatalities from abuse taking place in the United States in 2002 alone; nevertheless, recent studies indicate that fully 50-60% of deaths from child abuse are not recorded (Harris-Looby et al., 2004). Not surprisingly, the incidence of child abuse among substance abusing parents and caregivers has been shown to be higher than for their nonsubstance-abusing counterparts (Karoll & Poertner, 2003).

There are also some significant differences in the incidence of child abuse according to socioeconomic status, whether parents are married, cohabitating or single (Harris-Looby, Roberts & Wolman, 2004); there are also cultural and racial differences in the incidence of child abuse as well (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Interestingly, child abuse appears to take place in a vicious cyclical fashion in some cases wherein parents fail to provide a nurturing and supportive environment for their children who then act out in ways that attract an abusive response from the parents; this pattern of behavior is also more frequent among low-socioeconomic families (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). According to these authors, "Learning materials and experiences afford opportunities for social exchanges and, thereby, engage social arousal mechanisms in a generally productive way. Absent such opportunities, children may become bored and frustrated, leading them to engage in behavior that arouses negative responses from parents and peers" (p. 371).

Moreover, while low socioeconomic children are already at a disadvantage academically, when these children are abused, it may further adversely affect their ability to learn. According to Lowenthal (1999), "On average, abused, maltreated, or neglected children score lower on cognitive measures and demonstrate poorer school achievement compared to their non-abused peers of similar socioeconomic backgrounds. Children with uncaring parents or caregivers will learn to view themselves as unworthy, unlovable, and incompetent in school-related and cognitive tasks" (p. 204). Studies have shown time and again that abused children may also experience a loss of self-esteem and a lack of motivation to succeed academically (Lowenthal, 1999). Because abuse and the enormous impact it can have on children has been shown to be transmitted from one generation to the next (Harris-Looby et al., 2003), identifying opportunities for resolving these problems before they can adversely affect yet another generation of children is an important first step in addressing the complex issue of child abuse today, and these issues are discussed further below.

Intervention Initiatives.

Complex problems require complex solutions, and child abuse is no exception. Because child abuse is so inextricably interwoven with the family structure, using parenting classes together with appropriate mental health support services to raise awareness and educate caregivers remains a useful approach to addressing some of the problems that may contribute to the incidence of child abuse in the nation today (Dane, 2000). According to Harris-Looby and her colleagues, "Parenting classes could lessen the prevalence of the problem, but such classes are under-utilized. Teaching [abusive parents] parenting skills may be the most cost-effective way to reduce violent and abusive behaviors and prevent the transfer of violent behaviors from generation to generation" (p. 101). In this regard, Lowenthal (1999) reports that, "Informal support may be provided by family members, friends, and neighbors, as well as by religious organizations and peer support groups. Formal support systems include home visiting programs, parenting classes, and mental health services" (p. 204). Empirical evidence suggests that parenting classes can also help improve children's caring and social-emotional skills in the classroom (McDermott, 2003). More effective parenting class programs have included child care, substance abuse treatment, and educational and vocational assistance as well (Ashley, Brady & Marsden, 2003).

Unfortunately, there are also some profound challenges and constraints facing clinicians and parents alike when the time comes to confront these issues. For instance, according to Shull (1999), "Emotional or psychological child abuse is riven by conflict and contradiction, and the resulting incoherence makes it an unstable basis for intervention in families" (p. 1665). Therefore, it just makes good sense to approach each case of child abuse using the treatment modality best suited for the unique problems involved in a given setting (Takyi, 2002), but there are some general considerations that can also be used to help guide the process, including whether the parent is single or married, the ages of the individuals involved, as well as socioeconomic and cultural factors (Garcia & Holt, 2005).