Child development: stages, theories, and milestones

Child Psychology

Child development is a constantly changing psycho/social discipline with almost countless theories associated with it. The fundamental nature of children and how they develop to become either successful adults or unsuccessful adults to varying degrees is the essential question of the future and therefore the study of child development is a mass of information encompassing theories of all kinds regarding physical, cognitive, personality, moral, social-emotional, identity, and spiritual development of individuals at all points encompassing what we know as childhood. Additionally, this mass of ideas constitutes a collection of many structured theories about all kinds of development. This work will attempt to give an overview of the history of old and emerging child development theories in all their changing perspectives. This work will discuss important issues of child development with regard to health, nutrition, parenting/caretaking, education, resilience, gender, culture/ethnic identities in a comparison and contrast format discussing current research and controversies in addition to historical developments in the field. It is also clear that many theorists fall into several categories, some dependant upon the nomenclature that was utilized by the particular theorist to develop his or her theories and also the areas of interest he or she utilizes to seek answers to different developmental concerns. For this reason some theories and theorists will be mentioned in several of the basic developmental groupings of this work, and their theories will be compared to others, both new and old throughout the work.

History of Child Development Theory:

Any history of Child Development theory must begin by addressing the concepts associated with the first and probably most profound of theoretical conflicts in the field. The intrinsic conflict between those who theorize that child development is to a very large degree predetermined by the genetics of the individual, or the nature theorists and those who theorize that each new being is a tabula rasa or blank slate and that all the development that occurs is the exclusive responsibility of the environment and the learning achieved within it or the nurture theorists. This debate goes back far into the annals of psychology and to some degree predates the field itself and can be found in philosophy. (Lerner, 1997, p. 42) (Eliot, 1999, pp.1-6) at the inception of the field of child development there was a relatively clear sense that both are to some degree responsible for development, yet theorists still tend to lean in one direction or another seeking biological explanations if they are leaning toward nature and environmental explanations if they are leaning toward the other end of the spectrum. "Where does the truth lie? Perhaps all positions have elements of truth in them, but the arguments about where the sources of behavior lie are by no means resolved.... It may be seen that the basic issue in developmental psychology is the nature-nurture controversy. Indeed, this controversy has been and remains very much an issue." (Lerner, 1997, p. 81) Additionally it is also important to understand that the area of development being investigated also tends to sway the theorist as there are clear biological and/or environmental areas in specialization.

For example... some psychologists interested in the study of perceptual processes (the Gestalt school) claim that nativistic factors are most important in determining a person's perception, while others (e.g., Hebb 1949) take an empiricist point-of-view. In the area of personality, some (e.g., Sheldon 1940, 1942) stress what they claim to be innate sources of a person's temperamental-behavioral functioning, while others (e.g., McCandless 1967, 1970) maintain that acquired, socially learned responses are the source of such functions. In looking at certain types of animal behavior, some writers (e.g., Lorenz 1965) postulate preformed, innate mechanisms to account for observed patterns, while others (e.g., Gottlieb 1970, 1983; Kuo 1967; Lehrman 1953; Schneirla 1957) take a probabilistic-epigenetic approach. Some researchers interested in verbal development stress the primacy of maturation (Gesell and Thompson 1941), while others viewing the same sort of behaviors offer interpretations that stress learning (Gagne 1968). Finally, some psychologists interested in intelligence suggest hypotheses that stress the primacy of heredity factors (e.g., Jensen 1969, 1974, 1980), while others apparently opt to emphasize the role of the environment (Kagan 1969) and/or gene-environment interaction (Lewontin 1976). (Lerner, 1997, pp. 81-82)

Having discussed the most enduring of all comparative foundational theories it is now acceptable to demonstrate a sort of time line associated with the evolution of the field, from its human (rather than child) based theories that begin with the basis of psychology in general. To some degree the inception of child development theory began with the psychoanalytic theory as the theories of Freud and Jung began a drive for people to have a more complete understanding of the nature of the human mind as it applies to human development. Freud was especially interested in how childhood experiences created lasting problems for adults, and Jung agreed to some degree but also demonstrated that the greatest way to understand the adult human mind, and especially in psychosis was to analyze their subconscious thoughts for Jung through dream symbolism for Freud through dream symbolism and hypnosis. Though both theorists did not agree on all points and the emphasis of psychoanalytic theory on sexualization as the most basic and important aspect of human development even in infancy made the theories controversial, the theories still form the foundation of a desire by a whole field, of those who followed to better understand how the mind works and especially how it affects behavior.

Thus behavior also has a function. The function of behavior became the focus of much social scientific concern. This concern was reflected not only in the ideas of those interested in the phylogeny of behavior....the idea was promoted that the behavioral changes characterizing ontogeny could be understood on the basis of adaptation. Thus the adaptive role of behavior became a concern providing a basis for all of American psychology (White 1968) and plays a major part in the ideas of theorists as diverse as Hall (1904), Freud (1949), Piaget (1950), Erikson (1959), and Skinner (1938, 1950).

(Lerner, 1997, p. 15)

Additionally, to some degree Freud began the process of acknowledgement that human development could be viewed as a series of stages, in a scientific fashion. This became the basis for the development of many stage theories after. Lastly, before leaving this line of thinking it is also important to note that Freud's work also gave exclusive importance to the idea that there is something profoundly important about the period between birth and the end of adolescence or beginning of adulthood, the recognized ages of child development and that during this time the individual's psychological and physical growth during this period could have significant influence on their ability to become a successful or unsuccessful adult.

Stage Theory:

Freud as the first stage theorist proposed that children developed through a series of five 'psychosexual stages, defined as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital, each determining the development of the next stage or leaving the individual still working out, subconsciously some aspect of one or more stage that was underdeveloped at the crucial time in their life. Any development past the last stage, according the Freud was simply an internal return to whatever stage the individual did not complete as a child. (Mitchell & Black, 1995, p. 13) Erik Erikson, another stage theorist, in contrast sought to develop a theory of encompassing stages that included all the years of one's life, demonstrating that development does not and should not end at adulthood but continues through the lifespan. Nonetheless Erikson is also thought of as one of the first child psychologists and his stages are weighed more heavily toward the ages of childhood as he acknowledged that the younger one is the more developmental stages he or she must go through to achieve healthy development. (Erikson, 1975, p. 258) Erkson's stages of childhood, in brief include: Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 18 months) where a child seeks to have his or her needs met by caregivers and learns to trust that such needs ill be met, Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt (18 months to 3 years) where a child learns the boundaries of his or her environment by exploring them, Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years) where a child learns independent initiative and potentially deals with the guilt of autonomy, Industry vs. Inferiority (7 to 12 years) where a child develops educational skills, Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) where an individual attempts to define his or her role in society as well as in relationships with others. Erikson goes on to describe additional stages that have to do with adult development, yet these additional stages would be considered higher order developments or those that are more associated with adult happiness and adjustment to different social circumstances, while the childhood stages encompass both psychological and physical aspects of human development. (Erikson, 1963)

The next stage theory to be discussed is considered a cognitive theory. The express difference between cognitive theories and other theories of child development is the testament that children think in an exclusive manner, that is different from the thinking of adults. The most fundamental theorist in this area is Jean Piaget. Additionally, Piaget demonstrated one of the first scientific movements in the filed, with the utilization of direct observation as the best tool for understanding. (Piaget, 1962, p. 107) Piaget also believes, and his theories reflect that children play a very active and dynamic role in development through interaction with their environment and active role imitation. (Piaget, 1962, p. 159)

Sensory-motor intelligence is, in our view, the development of an assimilating activity which tends to incorporate external objects in its schemas while at the same time accommodating the schemas to the external world. A stable equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation results in properly intelligent adaptation. But if the subject's schemas of action are modified by the external world without his utilising this external world, i.e., if there is primacy of accommodation over assimilation, the activity tends to become imitation. Imitation is thus seen to be merely a continuation of the effort at accommodation, closely connected with the act of intelligence, of which it is one differentiated aspect, a temporarily detached part. (Piaget, 1962, p. 5)

Piaget's stage theory consists of four stages, heavily weighted by the act of imitation for assimilation and then moving forward to formal thought and independent abstract thought:

Sensorimotor stage, from birth to two years, consists of active involvement by the child in watching imitating and then eventually manipulating the environment through imitation of sound and physical actions, the goal of the stage is to develop object permanence, where the child is aware that an object or person exists even when they are not in direct view at any given moment. The Preoperational stage, from two to seven years where the child cannot conceptualize abstracts but instead needs direct physical examples and activities to further development. The Concrete operations stage, seven to eleven years, where physical experiences accumulate and allow the child to conceptualize and create logical structure to explain the environment. Some abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. The final stage is formal operations stage, ages eleven to fifteen where a child's cognitive skills have developed enough to make them capable of many abstract thoughts and where their thoughts are most like adults and can include reasoning. Each of these four stages is also broken down into more stages creating one of the most comprehensive of stage theories. (Piaget, 1962)

Stage theories have also been applied to physical as well as psychological development and physical development is often a basis of judgment regarding overall development, as it has been postulated and correlated frequently that those who develop abnormally or slowly physically often also have developmental delays in other areas. (Ulijasjek, Johnson, Preece, 1998, p. 195) Physical development delays can be associated with genetics, nutritional deficiencies, disease or even environmental exposure but they often occur in conjunction with psychological, behavioral or sociological delays in development.

Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories are also indicative of observation, possibly more so that the observations conducted by Piaget, and conducted in less anecdotal and more scientific a manner. Watson, Pavlov and Skinner are the main theorists of the behavioral models, which conclude that behavior is determined by a set of repeatable factors, such as instinct that drive reactions. According to the behavioral theorists behavior is driven by rewards, punishments, stimuli and reinforcers and can be developed through conditioning. The two main types of conditioning are classical and operant. Watson, Pavlov and Skinner among others are owned significant credit for furthering his new view on development, as it stepped outside the introspective nature of the previous forms of psychology and stressed observation and objectivity, in the place of assumption in some ways.

Todd & Morris, 1995, p. xv) These behaviorists as they came to be known spent a great deal of time observing animal behavior but also applied their findings and research to humans, when it was allowable. The behaviorists, on the whole argued that individuals reacted to their environment based on a concrete set of rules having to do with reward and sanction and that they would continue to do so based on innate sets of biological rules of survival and the desire to meet certain higher and lower needs. Additionally, the child according to a behaviorist can and will only have unwanted behavior changed if it is replaced by more acceptable behaviors that are conditioned in the same manner as those that are more problematic. New behaviors can be associated with previously neutral stimulus and create lasting behavioral changes through classical conditioning. Operant conditioning is on the other hand often associated with short or long-term rewards or sanctions and behavior is modified to gain reward or avoid punishment. (Catania, 1995, p. 192)

Social Development Theories:

The group of social development theories demonstrate the foundational idea that children do not develop in a vacuum but are constantly in an social environment, interacting with others. Bandura, Erikson, Freud and others are said to have been social development theorists as their work acknowledged the social aspect of human development and stressed emotional development as a result of socialization, either positive or negative. Bandura stresses the functioning that modeling or imitation plays in the development of emotional social skills. Though Bandura's work develops over a large spectrum of research and theory one of the most significant stresses of the researcher was that parenting behaviors serve as a model for child behavior and that punishment and aggression serve as a standard for the child to model through similar aggression. (Rubin & Burgess, 2002, p. 398) While Freud contends that aggression is a result of inappropriate social development, in the overall relationship between the mother and son and the father and daughter, Oedipus and Electra complexes, that develop the idea that at different times the child either seeks to emulate or replace the parent, in a gender role manner. If these challenges are not met, Freud contends that the individual will likely feel a sense of aggression toward the gender which they had the most problem with. (Guntrip, 1971, p. 40) (Zillmann, 1979, p. 52) Erikson as has been noted previously believed that each stage of human development had a certain conflict associated with it and if such a conflict was not met with the opposite resolution then aggression may result.

Erikson (1962) contributed the next major milestone in crisis intervention theory with the 1950 publication of Childhood and Society. Erikson's theory revolves around the notion of specific crises characterizing each developmental stage of an individual's life. His contribution was the notion of crisis as a normal developmental phenomenon and that intervention which leads to a balanced resolution at the time of a crisis would prevent later problems in emotional development and maturation. (Sandoval, 2002, p. 4)

Social development theory is inclusive of the need to understand the standards by which individuals resolve social and emotional conflict. Social theorists contend that conflict is a natural part of the development and learning process and that the resolution of such conflict will determine later socialization skills.

Infancy and Early Childhood:

As more and more attention has been placed upon the very early stages of development, and events and occurrences that can effect later behavior many theorists have developed rather specific ideals relating to the dynamic development of infancy and early childhood. Therefore many theorists, in all the above and below categories can also be grouped among those who paid particular attention to infancy and early childhood development. John Bowbly is one of these theorists, as he is known as a social theorist an attachment theorist but he paid very close attention to early childhood development. His work demonstrates a mark in the development of a greater understanding of how very early socialization determines later behavior. Bowbly stresses the importance of healthy parenting as a dynamic resolution to potential problems individuals may face as adults.

At some time of their lives, I believe, most human beings desire to have children and desire also that their children should grow up to be healthy, happy, and self-reliant. For those who succeed the rewards are great; but for those who have children but fail to rear them to be healthy, happy, and self-reliant the penalties in anxiety, frustration, friction, and perhaps shame or guilt, may be severe. Engaging in parenthood therefore is playing for high stakes. Furthermore, because successful parenting is a principal key to the mental health of the next generation, we need to know all we can both about its nature and about the manifold social and psychological conditions that influence its development for better or worse. (Bowlby, 1988, p. 1)

Bowlby was especially interested in attachment, between child and caregiver and seeking to understand the dynamic of how early attachment or lack there of can effect a child into adulthood. In fact in his foundational work, a Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development, he stresses the history of attachment theory as one that was driven by exclusive observations of the development of children who had been institutionalized, and where therefore not given the opportunity to have a healthy attachment to one or more primary caregivers. (Bowlby, 1988, p. 20) According to Bowlby early intimate attachment to caregivers determine the longitudinal ability of individuals to develop healthy intimate social relationships with others. (Bowlby, 1988, p. 120)

The predictable outcome of a child's attachment behavior is to bring him into closer proximity with other people, and particularly with that specific individual who is primarily responsible for his care. Bowlby refers to this individual as the "mother figure," and indeed in the human species, as well as in other species, this individual is usually the biological mother. The mother figure is, however, the principal caregiver, whether the natural mother or someone else who plays that role. Some behavioral components of the attachment system are signaling behaviors -- such as crying, calling, or smiling -- that serve to attract a caregiver to approach the child or to remain in proximity once closeness has been achieved. Other components are more active; thus, once locomotion has been acquired, the child is able to seek proximity to his attachment figure(s) on his own account. (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978, p. 6)

The development of attachment theory and infancy and early childhood studies by Bowlby ansd opthers resulted in significant interest in this area and many additional studies with regard to longitudinal effects of attachment or lack there of.

More recent studies have found that family patterns that undermine nurturing care may lead to significant compromise in both cognitive and emotional capacities. Supportive, warm, nurturing emotional interactions with infants and young children on the other hand, help the central nervous system grow appropriately. Listening to the human voice, for example, helps babies learn to distinguish sounds and develop language. Interactive experiences can result in brain cells being recruited for particular purposes -- extra ones for hearing rather than seeing, for instance. 1 Exchanging emotional gestures helps babies learn to perceive and respond to emotional cues and form a sense of self. (Brazelton & Greenspan, 2000, p. 1)

Attachment theory in infancy and early childhood development have come a long way in a better understanding of the biological processes needed for healthy development in all areas, including physical, psychological, social, emotional and cognitive. Maria Montessori is also a foundational member of the infant and early childhood development theorist group, as she stressed the importance not only of early childhood education, as most people know her for but for a type of early childhood development that was inclusive of not only the education of the mind but of the body. Though Montessori was also a believer in the discrete stages of many stage theories her emphasis was on developing systems of child rearing and education that were specific to the developing mind and body of the child at the earliest ages possible. (Montessori, 1967, p. 16) the most important note on the Montessori theories is that they were inclusive of psychological, language, and physical development, and they mark one of the first sets of theories to be inclusive of a more holistic pattern of infant and child development. One last thought with regard to infant and child development was the influence of Spock on the development of parenting and early childhood development theory. Spock's work Baby and Child Care is still printed and sold today even though it was first published in 1947, and has since been revised by Spock many times. (Spock, 1947)

Brain and Neurological Development:

Current emphasis on the biological nature of human development many theorists, have begun to develop theories associated with the patterned manner in which the brain develops in children. These theorists, many neurological scientists have developed theories that explain behavior through explaining how the brain develops in normal and abnormal ways, in infancy and childhood as well as by comparison in adults. It would also seem that the nature, nurture debate has been conceived anew with the development of modern medical technology, such as MRI and other more base cellular study technologies. (Eliot, 1999, p. 1-6) Those who are most respected in the field develop fundamental theories that are based on both the cells themselves and the malleable manner in which they develop in response to environment, i.e. The nature and the nurture of the brain. (Eliot, 1999, p. 5) (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000) Others also stress the importance of how brain development effects emotions and thusly the development of behaviors based on these emotions. (LeDoux, 1996) the more science can see the more fascinated science seems to be with the overall connection between the mind and the body as well as human development and strategies for ensuring healthy human development through a greater understanding of the developmental stages of the human mind. In a sense the work that is now being done by scientists in this area can add to or detract from assumptions other theorists have made with regard to human development, from an assumptive, empirical or observational level.