Impact of cross-cultural and interracial stepfamily dynamics on child development

Children Raised by Stepparents

Of Different Race Or Culture

This work in research investigates the inherent problems that exist in families characterized by parents and stepparents of a biracial union, or of a union that is characterized by diversity in terms of ethnicity, cultural, or religious differences or the diverse households headed by lesbian or gay parents. The conceptual framework of this research is the socio-cultural theory of Tharp and the Spheres of Influence as proposed in the work of Epstein. The literature review in this work notes that there is very little subject matter in this area and this study concludes that longitudinal research is critically needed in this subject area for the purpose of gaining an understanding of the challenges faced by these families.

CHILDREN RAISED by STEPPARENTS

OF DIFFERENT RACE or CULTURE

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this research is to examine children that are being raised by stepparents of a different race or culture in terms of the impact upon the life of that child and if the affects were negative or positive upon the child's life.

INTRODUCTION

There are three contexts in which a child's psychological growth is nurtured which are in the context of the family caring for the child; the meaning that culture provides to the child's life; and in the context that the child is connected to the external world through social contacts and resources. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, culture means the following:

CULTIVATION, TILLAGE the act of developing the intellectual and moral faculties especially by education expert care and training

4. a: enlightenment and excellence of taste acquired by intellectual and aesthetic training b: acquaintance with and taste in fine arts, humanities, and broad aspects of science as distinguished from vocational and technical skills

5. a: the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations b: the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; also: the characteristic features of everyday existence (as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time c: the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization d: the set of values, conventions, or social practices associated with a particular field, activity, or societal characteristic

Clearly the word 'culture' for the purpose of this research means the very roots of an individual associated with custom in terms of socialization among individuals and specific traits associated with religious, racial or social groups of people. This includes daily characteristics in terms of the living patterns and minute details of daily living evidenced in different methods of cooking and food choice as well as what is socially acceptable or socially non-acceptable within a society or specific culture. The work of Bronfenbreener proposes the 'Ecological Model', which is an approach in systemic understanding of the family dynamics, which are stated to be the specific systems as follows:

Microsystem:

Mesosystem:

Exosystem:

Macrosystem:

Each of these will be reviewed in this study. It is the interaction of these systems, which take place within the context of families. The structure of a family is that of mother, fathers and children. It is believed that the two-parent family structure is beneficial to children and that conflicts within the family structure specifically marital conflict results in emotional and behavioral problem in the children which has been shown to cause depression and anxiety, physical aggression and intimacy problems. There is a great adjustment to children when a divorce occurs and this is exaberrated by remarriage of one or both of the child's parents. The result of divorces show in the statistics that 90% of parents who are single are women and generally these women are in the lower-income brackets. Outside support comes from friends, neighbors and a type of extended family system. This situation is considered a better situation for a child to develop within than one in which the parents are constantly fighting or one in which a parent is abusive.

While there are benefits to two-parent families comprised by, the parent and a stepparent there are inherent challenges that exist in relation to the child's reaction to the new parent. The stepparent generally is not as close to the child and a struggle exists related to discipline of the child. There are diverse family structures that exist as well such as gay and lesbian couples who are parenting children, adolescent parents and cohabitating parents. Different styles of parenting are reflected in the warm and responsiveness of parents as well as in the control and discipline methods employed.

The 'Authoritarian' parent is one who conveys very little emotional warmth and hold extremely high expectations in terms of their children's behaviors and establish rules without considering the needs of the child. This parenting style demands obedience without question or explanation and does not allow for a 'give-and-take' communication between the parent and child.

The 'Permissive' parenting style is one that creates a home environment characterized by love and support with little standard-setting of expectations in terms of the behavior of their child whom is rarely punished for inappropriate behavior. This parenting-style allows the child to make many decisions for themselves concerning when to eat and when to go to bed.

The 'Uninvolved' parent provides very little emotional support for the child and has few standards or expectations for the child in terms of the child's behavior and ultimately have no interest in the lives of their children due to being immersed in their own problems. Out of each of these parenting styles arises possible conflict when united with another of the parenting styles. There are many aspects to what affects the child of the diverse possibly combinations of step-families in today's society.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework of this research is based upon the sociocultural theory. One of the features of sociocultural theory is that "teaching and learning are social, not individual activities. Learning takes place when novices and experts work together to solve a common problem or produce a common product. (Rogoff, 1991; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; as cited in Rueda, 1998) in addition, as basis for this research is the work of Epstein (1995) relates that there are 'overlapping spheres of influence' which include the school, family, and community that directly affects child development. Within all three contexts each of these influence and are influenced by each other. From Epstein's framework and an extensive body of empirical research have emerged six types of involvement:

1) Parenting

2) Communicating;

3) Volunteering;

4) Learning at home;

5) Decision making; and 6) Collaborating with community. (Epstein et al., 2003; as cited in Green, 2003)

Green states that: "One of the major tenets of the theory is that greater collaboration between spheres will results in positive benefits for students, parents, and teachers." (Epstein, 2003; Epstein et al., 2003; as cited by Green, 2003) the work of Brofenbrenner (1979) "placed child development in an ecological perspective" in work that combined "aspects of sociology and developmental psychology and laid an enduring foundation for future approaches. The view of the individual's experience was one as "a set of nested structures, each inside the next, like a set of Russian dolls" (Brofenbrenner, 1979; p.22 cited in Strengthening the Family: Implications for International Development, nd) in the initiative to study the development of a human being one must view "within, beyond, and across how the several systems interact. Brofenbrenner's four systems that interlock and shape the development of the individual are those as follows:

One: The Micro-system

At this level the family enters Bronfenbrenner's framework, but only in terms of its interpersonal interactions with the child. It is the level within which a child experiences immediate interactions with other people. At the beginning, the micro-system is the home, involving interactions with only one or two people in the family ("dyadic" or "triadic" interaction). As the child ages, the microsystem is more complex, involving more people - such as in a child-care centre or preschool. Bronfenbrenner noted that as long as increased numbers in a child's micro-system mean more enduring reciprocal relationships, increasing the size of the system will enhance child development." (Strengthening the Family: Implications for International Development, nd)

Two: The Meso-system

Meso-systems are the interrelationships among settings (i.e. The home, a day-care centre, and the schools). The stronger and more diverse the links among settings, the more powerful an influence the resulting systems will be on the child's development. In these interrelationships, the initiatives of the child, and the parents' involvement in linking the home and the school, play roles in determining the quality of the child's meso-system." (Strengthening the Family: Implications for International Development, nd)

Three: The Exo-system

The quality of interrelationships among settings is influenced by forces in which the child does not participate, but which have a direct bearing on parents and other adults who interact with the child. These may include the parental workplace, school boards, social service agencies, and planning commissions." (Strengthening the Family: Implications for International Development, nd)

Four: The Macro-system

Macro-systems are 'blueprints' for interlocking social forces at the macro-level and their interrelationships in shaping human development. They provide the broad ideological and organizational patterns within which the meso- and exo-systems reflect the ecology of human development. Macro-systems are not static, but might change through evolution and revolution. For example, economic recession, war, and technological changes may produce such changes." (Strengthening the Family: Implications for International Development, nd)

CHILDREN RAISED by STEPPARENTS

OF DIFFERENT RACE or CULTURE

LITERATURE REVIEW

The work entitled: "Same-Sex Parenting: Results of Some Studies" states: "With the exception of studies at a few universities with very close connections and conservative Christina denominations, essentially all research studies into same-sex parenting reveal that children of these families develop normally. There is some indication that boys are less sexually adventuresome, and that some girls are more sexually daring. There are also anecdotal accounts of children having to endure ridicule, taunting and harassment from other youth because of their parents' sexual orientation." (Same-Sex Parenting: Results of Some Studies, 1998)

In 1997 three studies conducted in the United States, Britain and the Netherlands were presented at the national meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development and in this study a research psychologist from the University of Virginia, Charlotte Patterson stated: "When you look at a kid with standard psychological assessments, you can't tell who has a lesbian parent and who has a heterosexual parent...That's really the main findings from these studies." (Same-Sex Parenting: Results of Some Studies, 1998) Another study is reported in which Fiona Tasker, research at Birkbeck College in the United Kingdom states in her article published in Clinical Child and Psychology and Psychiatry Journal that: "There are an increasing number of children who are being brought up in lesbian-led families. Research on non-clinical samples of children raised in lesbian-led families formed after parental divorce, together with studies of children raised in families planned by a single lesbian mother or lesbian couple, suggest that growing up in a lesbian-led family does not have negative effects on key developmental outcomes. In many ways family life for children growing up in lesbian-led families is similar to that experienced by children in heterosexual families. In other respects there are important distinctions, such as different types of family forms and the impact of social stigma on the family that may influence how clinicians approach therapeutic work with children in lesbian mother families." (Same-Sex Parenting: Results of Some Studies, 1998) the work of Nigel Barber Ph.D. entitled: "Evolutionary Explanations for Societal Differences in Single Parenthood" presents a new research strategy "designed to bridge the gap between evolutionary psychology that operates from the evolutionary past and social science that is bounded by recent history." State to be core assumptions of Barber's work are the following:

1) That modern societies owe their character to an interaction of hunter-gatherer adaptations with the modern environment;

2) That changes in societies may reflect change in individuals;

3) That historical changes and cross-societal differences are due to the same adaptational mechanisms, and 4) That different social contexts (e.g., social status) modify psychological development through adaptive mechanisms." (Barber, 2005)

The work of Barber states that: "Psychological stress in childhood influences adult sexual psychology and behavior in part because it alters brain development." (Barber, 2005) Specifically found to be a stress that alters the brain structure of the child and has the potential to modify the sexual psychology of male and females is poverty. Additionally stated is that: "Parental divorce is an interesting type of childhood stressor in this context because it is more of a middle-class experience in the U.S. For example, not because poor people enjoy stable marriage, but because they are considerably less likely to wed in the first place." (Barber, 2005)

The work of Barbara Bennett Woodhouse entitled: "Defining Family: Adoption Law and Policy Transracial Adoptions: Are you My Mother: Conceptualizing Children's Identity Rights in Transracial Adoptions" published in the Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy, Spring 1995 states that in the U.S.: "Congress enacted the Multiethnic Placement Act (MPA) Originally designed to avoid delay stemming from reluctance to place children in homes with parents of another race or ethnicity, the MPA has become a battleground from competing visions of individual and group identity and has revived longstanding controversies about what role, if any, children's community of origin should play in adoptive placements." (Woodhouse, 2005) Stated to be missing from the debate is "...a coherent schema for articulating children's rights to preservation of their identity in adoption." (Woodhouse, 2005) Woodhouse relates the fact that the needs of a child for nurturing and protection from harm have been long reflected in the legal norms but increasingly recognized in the legal norms is: "...the importance of children's familial, cultural, and national identities." (2005) it is additionally related in the work of Woodhouse that: "Judith Masson and Christine Harrison have described identity as 'an organizing framework which holds the past and present together providing some anticipated shape to future life." (2005)

It has been acknowledged by modern child development scholars that the role of the larger social order and surrounding cultural environment" has a great role in "shaping and defining identity." (Wood house, 2005) in the case of Palmore v. Sidioti, the U.S. Supreme Court stated in the context of a child custody dispute: "...that the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution precludes courts from considering the effects of racial prejudice, no matter how real, in determining the child's best interest. In Palmore, a judge had removed a white child from her mother's custody reasoning that the child would suffer from the stigma of difference in a black community and from hostility to her mother's interracial marriage." (Woodhouse, 2005) Woodhouse additionally states that: "Listening to children's voices suggest that children who are very young experience their sense of self, family, and community in extremely concrete terms. They identify as their family and draw their own identity from the people who take daily care of them and are their psychological parents. As children mature, however, they begin to define themselves in relation not only to their caregivers, but also to a larger society and history. As they begin to integrate more complex understandings of who they are and how they fit into the world, children themselves and the larger society that surrounds them both take on a greater role in defining them. As a result, biological, racial, and cultural identities take on increasing importance in their development." (2005)

The work of Jim Mahoney entitled: "Racism Issues and Multiracial Families: Attacking Racism Before it Defeats Your Child" was presented at a workshop and focuses on pointing the way "...especially for white parents, in attacking racism before it defeats their children of color." (Mahoney, 1995) Mahoney states that there are six tasks for parents of children of color whether they are adopted or stepchildren which are the tasks as follows:

Management of racism: This involves developing a group of behaviors to counteract and neutralize demeaning, and prejudicial behavior directed towards them by persons of another race or ethnic group. Success and survival depend upon management of racism. Considerable energy is invested in this skill.

Understand your child's behavior reflects on his or her group: When a white person fails, the failure is a reflection of that individual. When a person of color fails, that person fails for the entire group. Failures by persons of color reinforce negative expectations of whites.

Make racist behavior work for you and your children by turning it around and making it work for you. Whites will allow other whites, but not persons of color, to be dysfunctional.

Successful persons of color use protective hesitation. Teach this to your children: Persons of color are very careful with interaction with whites, and anyone they do not know intimately. They are careful about who they self-disclose with. They are careful in asking for help. While many whites will offer assistance gladly, others will use this as a way of defeating their interests.

Teach your children, by modeling, to confront racist behavior by individuals in a way that leaves them with their dignity. If this is not done, racism will dominate white's thinking and behavior.

Teach your children, by modeling, to manage their emotions: White individuals will negatively evaluate persons of color who display uncontrolled emotions, and cannot be expected to be empathic and support their interests." (Mahoney, 1995)

Six principles stated by Mahoney for attacking racism which is stated to be adapted from Dickens and Dickens (1991) are listed as follows:

It must be understood that parents model for other parents and children the best method of managing the racist behaviors of other people. In this context the child must be enabled through maintenance of a "health sense of identity and price." (Mahoney, 1995)

The parents must realize that this does not have to be accomplished alone but can be accomplished through garnering support in the school and community.

Allow yourself and your children to recognize racist behavior in action. The first step toward managing racist behavior is allowing yourself to see that behavior for what it is. If you refuse to do so, your children will be handicapped in how to wrestle racism to the ground. You will not grow internally if you refuse to allow yourself to see racist behavior in your life and in the lives of family, friends, providers and school boards. If you refuse this opportunity you are signaling to your children and racist members of your community that you will passively accept racist behavior directed to your children.

How do you recognize racist behavior? Watch the white members in your family, neighborhood, community, school, mental health center, agency, etc. Keep track of which of their behaviors are the same toward both persons of color and whites. Observe who's behavior is different. Teach yourself and your children to pay attention to their stomach. Physical discomfort can tip you off to subtle racist behavior.

As a parent, take a risk and confront dysfunctional racist behavior in yourself. Then try confronting racist behavior in your family, and with a friend. Learn to push back appropriately and with dignity when someone's racist behavior negatively affects you. Dickens & Dickens (1991) state in the corporate world, "You do not need to call attention to the behavior but should instead focus on eliminating the negative consequences of that behavior. You could say something as simple as, 'Before we move on, I would like to add to what has already been said; perhaps all of you did not hear me when I first spoke.' Dickens & dickens add, "Since not everything is worth fighting for and you don't need a reputation for argumentativeness, pick your battles judiciously." (Mahoney, 1995)

Parents need to model and attach language to the dynamics that occur in black-white dynamics as well as between individuals and in groups. It is important to understand the negative attitudes persons of color and whites can have toward each other. Your children need to know about the differences in style between whites and different cultural groups. Point out to your children the negative attitudes i.e., majority to minority, as well as differences in style that may cause conflict and interfere with your child's successful autonomy. It is important for parents to learn and rely on and teach "other ways of knowing." Whites typically do not know any other language than the communication style of the dominant culture. This is generally formal, needs are stated, and compliance is generally expected. There is not, as often, a comparable need to read a situation from the other side. As a result, whites often know "one language." Persons of color and persons of difference need at least two languages. They learn to "read" the body cues and actions of whites or dominant culture individuals. Persons in a minority status hear with a third ear, and learn to intuit a situation and defuse a situation before whites often knew there was one. When conflict arises, persons of color and other minorities."..must reach back to their culture and use their 'reading' skills to understand how whites' negative attitudes get 'played out' via dysfunctional behavior. Once the black-white dynamics or dominant-minority dynamics of the interaction are understood, appropriate responses can be developed to get positive results." (Mahoney, 1995)

Parents must learn to apply effective techniques for managing racist behavior. The following list, originally designed by Dickens & Dickens to assist black managers to make it in the corporate world, presents ways to manage racist behavior. Each strategy lists one or more specific techniques used by black managers to become successful in white organizations." (Mahoney, 1995)

Management of racist behavior is through strategic management of other people. Mahoney states that the parent may "manage through others" and that insensitivity and ignorance is generally to blame so it is important to tell other how they are "expected to behave in any given situation." (Mahoney, 1995) Racist behavior can be managed through use of "organizational norms and values" (Ibid) Racist behavior may also be managed through use of the "communication network" through developing "productive relationships with powerful people in your hierarchy." (Ibid) as the literature is very limited this area, this literature review will look to adoption families of children of different races or cultures for practical advice. In the work of Judith Ashton entitled: "Imperatives for Whites Who Adopt Black Children" it is stated that whites who adopt black children should "have black friends, adults as well as children....[as well as] other interracial families." (2002) it is important to realize "that in matters of face and culture you will learn the most about parenting your child from Black parents and other cultural guides." (Ashton, 2002) Ashton states that one should: "Attend integrated schools. Volunteer in your child's classroom. Be known throughout the school. Your family becomes normalized the more people are used to you." (2002) Other advice given by Ashton includes the following:

Live in an integrated community. Stay in one community so that you and your child don't have to keep starting over. IMPORTANT: Be prepared to move if it means a more affirming environment for your child.

Use Black professional and other services. Find Black babysitters and other family helpers.

Learn how to take good care of your child's skin and hair.

Have Black literature, children's books, periodicals, toys, games, artwork in your home. Learn and share with your children Black history and important current and cultural events. Participate in Black activities in your community (church, community centers, fairs, celebrations). Visit big cities with large African-American populations, museums, theater.

Be clear with yourself and your child as to his/her racial identity. Your child is Black or African-American whether or not s/he has one white parent. Ambivalence -- yours or your child's-- will not foster positive self-esteem. You and your child are minorities. You are forever a minority family.

Be active in social change groups/issues, e.g. affirmative action (teachers, police, firefighters, etc.) Be prepared to -- and do -- speak up when wrongs occur. Remember, your advocacy is not only for your own child but for all children and people of color as well as other oppressed groups. What happens to any Black kid in your school or community happens to your kid.

Be an active anti-racist. Understand why we are racists as long as we benefit from a racist system. Talk about racism. Let your child know through your words and your actions that you are part of the struggle.

Ask for help, and keep learning! Read, talk to people, and be alert to anything that will help you better affirm your child, support his/her development, and become a better anti-racist. Teach what you learn, by example and by sharing what you know with others.

Find ways for your child to learn that she or he is part of the African-American community. Accept and understand that not all of his/her activities will -- or ought to -- include you.

Always know whose side you're on. Do not tolerate racist acts or statements. The hurt and damage are just as great even if the acts or statements are based on ignorance or were not done maliciously.

INTERVENTION

Perhaps the first attack upon the problems that exist in biracial stepfamilies or stepfamilies characterized by cultural or religious differences or those headed by gay or lesbian parents is the acknowledgement of the work of Tony Fitzpatrick entitled: "Biological Differences Among Races Do Not Exist, WU Research Shows" states that "Race doesn't matter. In fact, it doesn't even exist in humans." (1998) Fitzpatrick relates the work of Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D. At Washington State University who has analyzed DNA from "global human populations that reveal the patterns of human evolution over the past one million years. Using the latest molecular biology techniques, Templeton has analyzed millions of genetic sequences found in three distinct types of human DNA and concludes that, in the scientific sense, there is no such thing as race. Race is a real cultural, political and economic concept in society, but it is not a biological concept, and that unfortunately is what many people wrongfully consider to be the essence of race in humans -- genetic differences," Templeton said. "Evolutionary history is the key to understanding race, and new molecular biology techniques offer so much on recent evolutionary history. I wanted to bring some objectivity to the topic. This very objective analysis shows the outcome is not even a close call: There's nothing even like a really distinct subdivision of humanity." (Fiztpatrick, 1998)

The work of Elise Trumbull and Maria Pacheco entitled: "Leading with Diversity: Cultural Competencies for Teacher Preparation and Professional Development" states as follows:

All cultures have evolved to serve the needs of their people; hence they need to be appreciated on their own merits and from their members' perspectives rather than according to the norms of another culture. This is a principle of cultural anthropology traceable to theorist and researcher Franz Boas (1940). All cultures have accumulated 'funds of knowledge' -sources of practical and intellectual strength that students and schools can tap."

It is critical that the school, community, parents, stepparents, grandparents, and other key people in the life of the child work together to give the child a sense of self and a sense of acceptance by all key figures in the life of the child. The work of John Raible entitled: "What is Transracialization and How Do I Get Started" states that: "Transracialization is the term I use to describe what happens to some individuals after they take part in long-term relationships of caring with people of another race. Transracialization emerges when individuals develop and deep and sophisticated understanding of race and racism. Apparently, people usually come to this awareness by being immersed in communities where they have the experience of being in the minority themselves. Sometimes they are married to or partnered with people of color, or they have other long-standing ties of friendship and chosen kinship with peers of color. For instance, they may live in predominantly African-American or Latino neighborhoods and attend worship services in churches, temples, and mosques where they are in the minority as white people." (Raible, 2006)

OUTCOMES

There is not enough previous research in this subject area to state definite outcomes as there is a need for longitudinal research in this subject area. However, there are a few reports that can be utilized in understanding the outcomes for children raised by stepparents of a different race and specifically as stated in the work of Rachel Noerdlinger is the fact that there is a sense of having lost one's identity at a certain point in the development of a child. While Noerdlinger is an African-American adoptee of white parents these same obstacles are faced within stepfamilies characterized by the merging of two races, cultures, religions, or within the families of lesbian and gay headed households.

DISCUSSION

Although research has not been conducted to reflect specific outcomes for children in these diverse families, it is anticipated that research will find that success or failure depends greatly upon the method the stepparents use in handling the situations that arise not only in the home, but in the community and in school will determine the outcomes for these children. A child that develops in a loving environment with clear rules and support of not only the parents and stepparents but of the larger community and the school have better outcomes than do other children regardless of race, ethnicity or cultural differences.

It is clear that it is not possible to just 'ignore' the differences that exist in hopes that they become illusory or nonexistent because these differences are real and are dynamic in the lives of these children. What has been noted in this study to be of great importance is the active participation of the parents and stepparents in the daily activities and events that take place at school because as these parents integrate themselves more fully into the community they effectively place safezones into effect for their children and at the same time present a model for other parents and other children as to the appropriate behavior in the face of the differences that exist. It is not possible that these differences will merely go away but what is possible is that the community at large will become used to the differences thereby enabling the children to fully participate in the school and community events without having a brand upon them due to these differences in racial or culture.

CONCLUSION

The research in this study has demonstrated the importance of proactively planning for and effectuating integration into the community for the parents and stepparents in biracial homes in order that the children of these homes suffer the least possible from reactions and actions of the community and the peers of the children in school. The friction that exists in stepfamilies will be exabberated in the home where racial, cultural, religious, or sexual diversity exists and this fact alone makes it critically important that the parents and stepparents in these homes garner community, family, and school support in assisting their children with the adjustments that must be made if the children are to develop in a healthy and normal fashion. The differences that exist in terms of the conflicting parenting styles of the two adults in the household must be effectively coped with and this must be through communication and cooperation. Epstein has identified six types of involvement which are parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making and collaboration with the community that are important in addressing the development of a child in any home and this is particularly applicable in the home characterized by diversity. Four levels systems that shape the development of a child have been identified in this study which are the microsystem, the Mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. As noted in this study the child's interactions within the microsystem is an important factor in the child's development as this interaction is within the child's immediate life. The mesosystem is also a great influencer in the child's development as the child develops relationships outside of the home in the school and the surrounding community and all of these settings interact with one another. The quality of the relationships among the settings or the 'exosystem' is affected by others and the child has no control over this therefore, it is up to parents, teachers, social service agencies and others to effectively enable the child in health development. Finally, the macrosystem must constantly evolve and change in order to enable the child in their development. It is clearly the responsibility of not only parents and stepparents but the community and schools and other public agencies to enable the healthy development of children through striving toward what Raible terms to be transracialization and provide a healthy and productive environment for which the child to develop within.