Chinese religions: history, beliefs, and practices

Religion

Taoist Influence in Sun Tzu's the Art of War

Sun Tzu's the Art of War is a military classic, though few realize the significant religious and spiritual roots the treatise has in Chinese Taoism. At first brush, a treatise on the art and practice of warfare seems at odds with a spiritual tradition the likes of Taoism. Taoism, which is most concerned with achieving a harmonious balance with the natural world, would apparently be utterly opposed to the practice of war. And yet, a close examination of both Sun Tzu and classic Taoist thought indicates that there are significant parallels between the two. Taoism, we shall see, is the "true inspiration" for Sun Tzu's the Art of War. In fact, it would seem that Sun Tzu's the Art of War has been entirely influenced by the Taoist traditions that were prevalent in Chinese society 2,500 years ago.

At the heart of the Art of War is Taoism. This apparently contradictory revelation is an important one. It helps us better understand the nature of Sun Tzu's beliefs, his influences, and the overall purpose of his text on the subject of war. The historical reality is that when the Art of War was written, it would have been impossible for Sun Tzu's audience to have no knowledge of Taoism, which was a dominant spiritual and philosophical tradition at the time. It was true that "Taoist philosophies formed the cornerstone of philosophical thought for Sun Tzu's audience" (Cantrell 6). Rather than being incompatiable, we find that Taoism is actually at the heart of Sun Tzu's writings on war and conflict. In his words, we see traditional Taoist concepts emerge from discussions of battle tactics and troop movements.

Basically, Taoism is an ancient Chinese spiritual tradition that can be roughly translated as "the way of life." It provides loose proscriptions for how individuals can live in harmony with their surroundings and with their fellow man. But like any good philosophy, Taoism contains a few key tenets that are common throughout all of the writings on the subject. Chief among these include the idea that one should remain immovable and allow events to flow over and around oneself, that one should try to balance the opposite but complementary forces of the universe (yin and yang), and the art of "wu wei," which can be roughly translated as action through inaction or accomplishing goals through the least effort (Wilson). At its heart, Taoism recognizes that there is conflict inherent in life, that the competition for limited resources will inevitably lead to conflicts, but that this conflict naturally takes the form of a universal balance that human beings can imitate in their own endeavors (Cantrell 13). This realization is the point on which Sun Tzu is able to use Taoist philosophy to describe warfare. In other words, he uses the notion that conflict can be balanced and harmonious in dictating the way in which wars can best be fought.

In the Art of War, we find numerous examples of Taoist influences, particularly when we consider the Taoist principle of going with the flow, the language of yin and yang, and the art of wu wei (Wilson). A discussion of these points of comparison between Sun Tzu and Taoism reveals a significant truth: the two are not incompatible. Both recognize that war and conflict is necessary, but that it should be used as a last resort and that the truly effective leader can nearly always devise a better solution than war to settle a conflict (Cantrell 7). Consider first the fluid nature of war that Sun Tzu describes, remarkably close to Taoist descriptions of the flow of life itself. Sun Tzu explains, "Just as water retains no constant shape, so in warfare there are no constant conditions" (Sun Tzu 29). He goes on to explain that the adept military commander must be willing to adapt to new events, to let them flow in and around him so that his ultimate goals are unaffected by changes in battle conditions. This strategy is quite similar to the Taoist belief that one should go with the flow of the world, and let events occur without allowing those events to control one's actions or life.

Of course, there is much more in common between the Taoism and the Art of War, especially as we move through the dualistic concepts of yin and yang and into the art of wu wei. Yin and yang are two Taoist principles, two forces in the universe that are constantly in conflict with one another and yet always in balance. The ubiquitous yin-yang symbol is a graphical representation of this relationship. In war, Sun Tzu put this principle to work and describes the role of the military leader as to find the most balanced response to existing conditions and enemy actions. In this way, Sun Tzu finds intriguing ways to incorporate Taoism into a discussion of battle. He writes, "When able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must seem inactive [...] if the enemy is taking his ease, harass him; if quietly encamped, force him to move" (Sun Tzu 11, 25).

The descriptions of dual relationships literally litter the Art of War and, at times, are much too numerous to count -- let alone list here in full. Instead, these listed give a rough approximation of the way that Sun Tzu perceives the field of battle and how combatants can best interact with one another. This concept is contrary to the usual Western attitudes about battle and conflict, which generally advise the individual to respond in kind, to fight fire with fire so to speak. That is the way toward the escalation of conflict and the ultimate destruction of at least one of the parties involved. It is an unnervingly accurate description of the history of warfare in the West, a way to fight that Sun Tzu and the Taoists would eschew at all costs. Instead, Sun Tzu advocates understanding the enemy and understanding oneself in order to find the most balanced solution to any conflict. As a last resort, this can mean open conflict but even in those cases Sun Tzu always advises responding in unexpected ways to prevent the enemy from ever gaining a clear advantage.

More than this, however, we find that the Taoist influence in the Art of War is most apparent in the art of wu wei, the ability to produce results with little or no action. This is the dominant strategy in Sun Tzu's writings: "This strategy, where one may win without fighting, or accomplish much by doing little, is unmistakably Taoist in its root" (Evans-Campbell). If open fighting is only meant as a last resort for both Sun Tzu and the Taoists, then this described stratagem provides the best chance to avoid direct conflict while still obtaining one's objectives. It is the practice of "winning whole" in a productive, balanced way that doesn't destroy either the goal or the individual after that goal. The Taoist wu wei provides the tool to achieve Sun Tzu's ideal of winning without fighting (Cantrell 8). While it may not always be possible to achieve this ideal, Sun Tzu argues that it is the goal to which all military leaders should strive.

He writes in the Art of War, "To fight and conquer in all your campaigns is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting" (Sun Tzu 15). Again, from a text written on warfare, this is a seemingly odd position to take. What kind of wars can be fought, after all, without any fighting? How can a general be judged great if he never engages in battle? Yet, this is exactly what Sun Tzu advocates, the guiding principle behind the Art of War. On the surface, it makes little sense. Yet, when we understand that prevailing Taoist thought heavily influenced the treatise, the advice suddenly becomes clearer and more applicable. We can understand what Sun Tzu's motivation was. In referencing Taoist thought, he subtly indicates that one's goal in a conflict should take higher priority than a lust for battle. Conflict without a purpose is wasteful and destructive, the Taoists would say. Glory and honor may be achieved on a battlefield, but such destruction will not necessarily ensure success and is more likely to produce a pyrrhic victory. As Sun Tzu explained, "In war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns" (Sun Tzu 14).