Classroom Management Is an Educational

Classroom management is an educational issue that has come to the fore in the literature in recent years in terms of various theories and models of management. One of the perennial issues often dealt with in the literature is the complex issue of discipline. This is particularly the case in recent years when classroom order, school violence and disruption have become topics in the news. The issue of classroom management as it relates to discipline has therefore assumed a greater importance in the literature.

It should also be borne in mind that discipline in class management and education is a subject that has a long theoretical and practical history. Teachers throughout the ages have been concerned with this problem. For example, Socrates was said to have complained about children"... who tyrannized over their teachers" (McDaniel, T. 1994)

While it is often stated in the literature that"... The underlying dynamic of classroom misbehavior has not changed much over many decades," (McDaniel, T. 1994) it is certainly true that school management and discipline problems have become even more serious and problematic in modern schools today.

This study will provide an overview of the literature on classroom management with a special emphasis on discipline theory and issues that are pertinent to establishing and maintaining a good learning environment. Attention will also be given to both the older and more contemporary literature that offers alternative and more integrative approaches to classroom management.

Brief overview

Classroom management has numerous theoretical and practical dimensions. In a study by Mohammad Sakarneh, entitled Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classroom, the author is of the opinion that one of the cardinal issues affecting classroom management is effective teachers and teaching. In other words the modern teacher, who often has to teach inclusive classes where children of mixed abilities are integrated, has to be able to use modern management techniques and skills. "In this situation the teachers must be especially skilled in organization, management, appropriate teaching strategies and behaviour management among other things." (Sakarneh M.)

There is a general consensus in the literature that a good classroom teacher also needs to be a good manager and that the concept of management in this sense refers to an overall integration of skills and abilities.

For example a study by Westwood (1995) in an overview of the literature on the effective teacher, found the effective teacher should be a good classroom manager which includes the following aspects: a focus on "... academic skills, with good expectation, enthusiasm, using effective strategies to keep students on task and using variety of teaching and resources styles, covering the material content." (Sakarneh M.)

Furthermore, the teacher needs to make use of accessible presentation of material, as well as being able to "... explain and outline instruction clearly, frequently observe what students are doing taking into account differences between the students and re-teaching when necessarily, gives frequent feedback for all students and checks for understanding by using probing questions. " (Sakarneh M.)

Another aspect that is noted as being important in effective management is, according to Stanovich and Jordan (1998), that the effective teacher is one capable of monitoring student's behavior in the classroom. There are numerous practical aspects of classroom management that are mentioned in the literature, such as the teacher's ability to"...manage the instruction time for the students and themselves and....the ability to review the previous days lesson, before start a new lesson which is important in connecting the previous and the new knowledge for the students, also ensuring their understanding by using questions and monitoring students progress frequently." (Sakarneh M.)

However many educationists are of the opinion that in terms of the central problematics of classroom management, the main issue mentioned refers to methods of enforcing discipline; which can also serve to enhance classroom management and the learning process. There is little doubt in an overview of the literature that maintaining order and discipline in the classroom is a central contemporary concern. Tauber (1999) asks the central question; "What helps student learn?." The answer to this question relates strongly to discipline in classroom management. "...when data from...research analyses and surveys from experts are combined, classroom management tops a list of twenty-eight categories that most influence learning." (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

3. Student behavior

The degree of successful classroom management is determined to a large extent by positive student behavior. There is a renewed focus in the contemporary literature on the question of student behavior as it relates to theories and models of classroom management. There is also an emphasis on techniques and methods of enforcing discipline within the classroom in a non-coercive way.

However, the perceived lack of discipline and the generally low level of student behavior in many modern schools have raised concern among educationists and pedagogical theorists. This point is emphasized by the fact that a Gallup Poll of the public's attitudes toward public schools has "...for almost three decades identified lack of discipline as one of the biggest problems in public schools." (Tauber, 1999, p. 3) Studies have also "...singled out lack of discipline as the number one problem more often than any other. Classroom management strategies, a more palatable name for "discipline," clearly need some attention! " (Tauber, 1999, p. 3)

The situation with regard to discipline in the classroom has not changed much in the last few decades. As Charles (1981) points out, discipline and poor student behavior in the classroom is a major problem in schools. (Charles 1981, p. 13) the 1999 study by Tauber also reiterates this concern and states that,

Discipline, class control, classroom management -- by whatever name you call it -- keeping order in the classroom is a teacher's greatest concern. You may not like that fact; you may wish it weren't true. But it is. That's a given in the daily life of teachers. Discipline is so crucial, so basic to everything else in the classroom, that most educators agree: it is the one thing that makes or breaks teachers. (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

The literature also points out that the question and problematics of discipline and student behavior in classroom management has been a perennial issue in education. "A sampling of more than fifty years of discipline articles repeatedly cites classroom management as a major worry of educators." (Tauber, 1999, p. 4) in other words, the question of discipline as it relates to the control and motivation of positive student behavior is seen to be an imperative factor in good classroom management and in the creation of a positive and achievement - orientated classroom environment.

A the ability to govern is the first essential of success in teaching. For instance, 25% of the teachers who fail do so primarily because of troubles growing out of discipline... one of the most perplexing problems facing many teachers in our schools today -- particularly beginning teachers -- is maintaining control in the classroom. (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

Another important aspect of classroom management that has come to the fore in more recent studies is the more inclusive and holistic approach to the understanding of discipline and student problems. As experts in the field state, it is important to realize that the issue of student behavior and the problems of discipline extend beyond the confines of the classroom and includes the student's personal histories and social and psychological environments. These are variables that should be included in the understanding of student behavior; and are also factors that complicate the issue of classroom discipline.

In the real world, these children cannot simply leave their out-of-school problems at the school's front door in the morning and collect them at day's end. Students' problems will accompany them to your classroom. Skills to manage students, all kinds of students with all kinds of problems, are essential to even the most effective teacher.

(Tauber, 1999, p. 10/11)

4. Approaches to discipline

One important aspect that emerges from the literature is that in general there are no really new approaches or information on the question of discipline in the classroom. "Little brand new information has been generated on classroom management in recent years." (Tauber, 1999, p. 7) Tauber's study also points out that there have been relatively few new publications on the issue of discipline in the classroom. (Tauber, 1999, p. 7) on the other hand this view is also challenged by the more modern and contemporary approaches to discipline in the classroom in recent years. However, it seem that what Tauber is suggesting is that the essential and basic problems that student discipline and class management represent are not essentially new and that they are one of the oldest areas of concern in teaching.

In general there are three main theoretical trajectories with regard to the issue of discipline. The first is the interventionist approach. This approach is based on the assumption that environmental concerns are the central factor which determines development in children. The teacher is seen as a central and important part of these environmental conditions. Therefore the role of the teacher is mainly to "...control the environment by implementing a logical system (the teacher's, of course) of conditioning." (Tauber, 1999, p. 19) in this context the teacher is seen as an "interventionist" in that he or she has to control and dictate the learning and behavioral environment. "By accepting a position as a teacher, a person has not only the right but an 'obligation' to modify student behavior" (Axelrod, 1977, p. 158). In essence the interventionist approach is a direct behavioral approach which is described by Tauber as the "carrot-and-stick approach." (Tauber, 1999, p. 19)

This form of discipline is based on a reward and punishment system which is seen as the main method of motivating students. The essence of the approach is that discipline is essentially a form of behavior modification. "A student's behavior must be modified, be shaped. Interventionists would argue that this directing of a student's actions is being done for the student's own good." (Tauber, 1999, p. 20) the teacher therefore is directly in control and there is no question of the more contemporary democratic and sharing approach to class management. On the contrary, in terms of this theoretical approach, the teacher is the central and dominant figure with the children in the background. (Tauber, 1999, p. 20)

The above approach is countered by the noninterventionist theory of discipline. This is a view that discipline and class management should take place in a more supportive way and in an environment in which the students have at least some participatory say in the management of the class. This view shifts the focus from the teacher as the sole "director" of control and power and places emphasis on the inner motivation of the child. The emphasis on control is replaced by the view that nurturing is a far better method of creating a classroom environment in which there is consensus and support rather than a rigid power structure. "...noninterventionists believe in providing a supportive, facilitating environment for students. A faith exists that the student possesses an internal motivation that, if simply nurtured (not controlled), will blossom." (Tauber, 1999, p. 20) in this view the teacher becomes a "facilitator" of the classroom and the learning process.

Studies related to the noninterventionist approach are also careful to point out that this is not a system where "anything goes" and where there would be a breakdown of discipline. This form of discipline relates more to the ideal of "supportive disciple" that will be discussed in the next section. The noninterventionist approach in fact has specific and well - designed classroom management models. "Noninterventionists have complete classroom management models designed to handle every situation interventionists (and their models) must handle." (Tauber, 1999, p. 20)

Another school of thought in discipline and class management is the interactionalist approach. This approach places emphasis on student responsibility and the interaction between the teacher and the class. In brief this theory believes that "...conflicts cannot be resolved without shared responsibility, without full participation in decision making by all the participants in a conflict..." (Tauber, 1999, p. 20)

As its name suggests, the locus of this view is on the dual trust and participation been the parties. "What is important to interactionalists is not how many conflicts occur, but how those conflicts are resolved so that relationships remain intact, both parties save face, and both feel their needs have been met." (Tauber, 1999, p. 20) Another aspect of this view is the importance of choice in the classroom situation. This is intended to promote an environment where the students feel responsible and takes action for their decisions.

What becomes evident in the interactionalist and noninterventionist view of classroom management is that there is a realization of the classroom as complex social environment. This differs from the interventionist attitude towards discipline in which the teacher is the sole mediator of power and order.

4.1. Supportive discipline and achievement

Disciplinary methods that support student achievements and enhance the possibility of learning development are usually considered under the rubric of supportive discipline. According to a study by Englander, (1987) there are six essential conditions for good discipline to exist in the classroom. These are described as follows: " (1) schools must be a good place; (2) students are trusted; (3) rules are established; (4) students agree to and accept the rules; (5) rules are open to change; and (6) rule violations have consequences." (Englander, 1987, p. 97) in the light of these conditions, studies show that successful class management often relies on an environment and disciplinary conditions that are accepted by the students and not rebelled against.

In other words, the concept of supportive disciple relies on a classroom management system in which the "...student feels in control of her destiny, finds friends and success in school..." (Englander, 1987, p. 97) This in turn leads to and enhances the level of academic and other forms of student achievement.

The teacher's role in terms of classroom management therefore is a supportive one and is allied more to the interactionalist and noninterventionist models of management. This view also places emphasis on interpersonal contact and the establishment of relationships between students and teachers, as opposed to the distance model of discipline in the interventionist approach.

Many studies in classroom management claim that this interactive approach to discipline produces positive results. "You will be impressed with how pupil attitudes will change as we change our attitude. As we have already noted, such interpersonal teacher behavior as empathy, genuineness, and respect are reflected not only in pupil attitude but increased academic achievement..." (Englander, 1987, p. 97)

On the other hand the literature also stresses that there must be rules in the classroom and that these rules must have consequences that are recognized by the students. "Students must realize that there are consequences to all behavior and that rule violations are not to be ignored." (Englander, 1987, p. 101)

These studies also point out that the consequences of poor or negative behavior need not be linked to strict authoritative punishments. This is another important aspect to supportive discipline, where the consequences of flouting the rules are administered in a way that encourages the student to conform, rather the forcing conformity on the basis of an authoritative distance. One example of this approach cited by Englander (1987) states that, "The offender is confronted with the behavior and its consequences in terms of personal need satisfaction and the deprivation of others' needs and rights." (Englander, 1987, p. 101) in other words the consequences of the student's actions and the punishment meted out are explained to the students in terms of the effects that the student's actions have on themselves and others.

A central difference posited by supportive discipline can be seen in the view of the "logical consequences" of action that transgress rules, as opposed to the more traditional view of punishments. The logical consequences refer to"...the reality of the social order, not of the person...," while punishment refers to "...the power of a personal authority." (Dreikurs and Grey, 1968, p.71) the idea of logical consequences is a more interactionalist approach which includes the understanding and involvement of the students in disciplinary procedures.

In general the contemporary literature on this aspect tends to conform to the above views in which a more interactionalist approach rather than an interventionist approach is preferred. Many educationists have moved away from the idea of authoritative punishment as a means of control in the classroom and adopted an approach that emphasizes personal responsibility and relationship building. The applications of supportive discipline have been shown to have the effect of enhancing the classroom environment and consequently increasing learning motivation and achievement results and standards.

4.1.1. School and classroom climate

Achievement, motivation and classroom management, from both the student and the teacher's point-of-view, are often strongly influenced and affected by the importance of school and classroom climate. Overall school climate is an important issue in student development and achievement, as it relates directly not only educational issues per se but also to the atmosphere and the working environment in the classroom. The importance of the school climate and its relationship to student achievement and development is expressed by Esposito (1999) in terms of the various aspects of the school environment that contributes to or hinders student development; and which is independent of the effects of the family context. (Esposito, 1999. p. 365) the school climate is often seen by many educational experts as being extremely important in terms of child development.

There are many studies which show the importance of school climate in terms of learning potential, as well as related disciplinary issues.

As one study clearly states; "The interest in the study of school climate stems from a major belief that...school climate is thought to be linked to educational outcomes, especially achievement." (Haynes, Emmons & Ben-Avie, 1997, p. 321)

There are many different but interrelated conceptualizations of "school climate" (Sprott, 2004, p 556) One general view refers to school climate as the climate or atmosphere which can be conducive, or otherwise, to learning and interacting and the class management in general. Sprott (2004) for example states that "effective classrooms appear to promote positive relationships among classroom members and have procedures oriented toward academic success." (Sprott, 2004, p 556) comprehensive definition which encompasses many of the central issues and areas that relate to school climate and discipline is suggested by Esposito (1999). Esposito views school climate as a."..umbrella term to describe the extent to which discipline problems affect a school. "(Esposito, 1999, p. 365) Furthermore, school climate is viewed by educationists as a psychological factor within has a profound effect on the students learning abilities and achievements.

Most experts in the field view school climate as an essential determining aspect in the understanding and advancement of student growth and achievement.

The term school climate is also linked to school and classroom management and the way that staff are treated as well the extent to which their psychological and achievement needs are met. This has a concomitant effect on the way that the teacher's interact with the student and the impact on long-term achievement results (Sprott, 2004, p 556)

Studies in the area of school climate and its effect on achievement state that the school climate is intimately linked to aspects of educational outcomes, particularly with regard to achievement. (Haynes, et al. 1997, p 321) the literature on the subject indicates the importance of school climate from many different perspectives.

For example, the interrelationship between school climate and student achievement is explored in an article, Create great school climate, by Vail (2005), which focuses on the way in which school climate affects teaching. The school climate in terms of teacher's morale and satisfaction influences student achievement and has an effect on classroom dynamics and management. Vail also refers to the fact that some schools can have a "toxic climate" in which there is poor teacher-student communications and atmosphere. This can produce a negative affect on achievement in both the short- and long-term.

There is little doubt that, as these studies and others show, a positive school climate provides opportunities for improved behavior patterns among student. More importantly, as Sprott (2004), among others, has found, classroom climates have important effects on children's perceptions and behaviors.

Conversely, what most of the literature indicates is that there is a strong correlation between poor school climate and lack of student achievement. (Haynes, et al. 1997, p 321) Studies have shown that school climate is linked to discipline through its affect on behavior. Haynes, et al. And others have noted this link in the ways that school climate affects student behavior.

Violence and misdemeanors in schools has raised concern among educationists in recent years. Violence in schools obviously has an extremely negative impact on achievement. In this regard it has been found that a positive school climate can be instrumental in reducing the rates of violence and misdemeanors. Sprott particularly mentions the importance of emotional support in the classroom as a means of dealing with high-risk children and tempering the causes of violent behavior. Sprott however states that there has not been sufficient research into this aspect. (Sprott, 2004, p 553) This relativity paucity of research into the relationship between school climate and certain variables is a matter of concern that is mentioned in a number of studies.

As Esposio states, "There is a dearth of research about the influence of an overall measure of school climate on children's social and academic outcomes." (Esposito, 1999, p. 365) There is therefore a need for further research into the variables and factors that influence and affect school climate, discipline and achievement

4.2. Positive teacher-student relationships

Many educationists stress that the teacher at whatever level of schooling needs to achieve a balance between discipline and other developmental aspects of teaching. "Educators need a balance between discipline theory and its practice in the classroom. This is especially important in today's education climate, with its increased demands for teacher accountability." (Classroom Management) This balance also has consequences for the establishment of positive teacher-student relationships.

Rudolf Dreikurs Discipline Theory is worth noting in this regard.

Firstly, Dreikurs posits that encouragement is a more appropriate response to discipline problems as it opens up pathways of discussion and further learning interaction from the teacher's perspective. A central aspect of this principle and one which relates to Dreikurs' model and discipline, is that the consequences of behavior should be logically consistent with the behavior.

Rudolf Dreiker's model or Discipline Theory is based on the ideas of the social psychologist Alfred Adler who "...espoused that the central motivation of all humans is to belong and to be accepted by others." (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115). In other words, this view sees all human interaction and behavior as "... directed toward achieving social recognition." (Burke J. And Gahan B.)

Importantly, this leads to the practical application of methods of dealing with discipline and misbehavior in the classroom. As Wolfgang (1999) explains; "....when a student is unsuccessful in obtaining social acceptance, a pattern of misbehavior begins." (Burke J. And Gahan B.) He adds, "If teachers can help misbehaving students understand their mistaken, faulty goals and provide them with avenues for group acceptance, then such students will rationally change their own behaviors." (Burke J. And Gahan B.)

This view provides the underlying rationale of a theory of class management which stresses close and positive student - teacher interaction and relationships. This model of discipline "... believes the correction of students' misbehavior is the result of a teacher actively showing a student how to belong." (Dreikurs, Rudolf) in this regard the notion of logical consequences replaces the idea of punishment.

Dreikurs, Rudolf)

These practical applications of theory tend to suggest that class management is progressive and advanced when their is a deeper connection and relationship between teacher and student

The idea of logical consequences as opposed to authoritative punishment has been briefly referred to and relates to the development of interaction and a positive relationship between teacher and student in the process of class management and discipline. This refers to the idea that a child who is disobedient should not be punished as such but rather should be helped in a more constructive way, which leads to the idea of logical consequences for actions. In other words, positive behavior must be seen to elicit positive consequences; on the other hand bad behavior must be seen to elicit the logical consequences of that action. It is important that the teacher enables the child to understand the connection between his to her actions and the consequences. The entire model is based on a principle of learning as a process of encouragement, positive as well as negative reinforcement and confidence building.

This approach is related to the view that the origins of bad behavior in the classroom are essentially a call for attention and acceptance.

This is more often identified with disturbing behavior. Many times this occurs because students are not getting the recognition that they feel they deserve. If students cannot get attention for their positive behaviors (being on task, completing work, arriving on time, etc.), they will seek it with inappropriate behaviors (continually calling out, refusing to work, asking irrelevant questions, etc.

Dreikurs, Rudolf)

In this regard the teacher's task therefore is to "...recognize students' inner goal and them help the students change to the more appropriate goal of learning how to belong with others." (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115).

Dreikurs' theory is aimed at adjusting and altering the symptoms of bad behavior into positive learning experiences. Another important result is that it tends to promote mutual respect between teachers and students. Furthermore, it helps the child to develop a sense of connection with others and understand the necessity for class discipline

5. Perceptions and interaction

The topic of discipline in schools is an emotive and important issue. This is due to the fact that discipline is perceived as an essential part of effective classroom learning and a vital part of good classroom management. The general perception from the educationist's point-of-view is that, "An orderly, purposeful classroom with pupils actively engaged in learning provides positive conditions for learning. " (Teachers' Perceptions of Discipline in Scottish Schools)