Classroom management and discipline in contemporary education

Classroom management is an educational issue that has come to the fore in the literature in recent years in terms of various theories and models of management. One of the perennial issues often dealt with in the literature is the complex issue of discipline. This is particularly the case in recent years when classroom order, school violence and disruption have become topics in the news. The issue of classroom management as it relates to discipline has therefore assumed a greater importance in the literature.

It should also be borne in mind that discipline in class management and education is a subject that has a long theoretical and practical history. Teachers throughout the ages have been concerned with this problem. For example, Socrates was said to have complained about children"... who tyrannized over their teachers" (McDaniel, T. 1994)

While it is often stated in the literature that"... The underlying dynamic of classroom misbehavior has not changed much over many decades," (McDaniel, T. 1994) it is certainly true that school management and discipline problems have become even more serious and problematic in modern schools today.

This study will provide an overview of the literature on classroom management with a special emphasis on discipline theory and issues that are pertinent to establishing and maintaining a good learning environment. Attention will also be given to both the older and more contemporary literature that offers alternative and more integrative approaches to classroom management.

Brief overview

Classroom management has numerous theoretical and practical dimensions. In a study by Mohammad Sakarneh, entitled Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classroom, the author is of the opinion that one of the cardinal issues affecting classroom management is effective teachers and teaching. In other words the modern teacher, who often has to teach inclusive classes where children of mixed abilities are integrated, has to be able to use modern management techniques and skills. "In this situation the teachers must be especially skilled in organization, management, appropriate teaching strategies and behaviour management among other things." (Sakarneh M.)

There is a general consensus in the literature that a good classroom teacher also needs to be a good manager and that the concept of management in this sense refers to an overall integration of skills and abilities.

For example a study by Westwood (1995) in an overview of the literature on the effective teacher, found the effective teacher should be a good classroom manager which includes the following aspects: a focus on "... academic skills, with good expectation, enthusiasm, using effective strategies to keep students on task and using variety of teaching and resources styles, covering the material content." (Sakarneh M.)

Furthermore, the teacher needs to make use of accessible presentation of material, as well as being able to "... explain and outline instruction clearly, frequently observe what students are doing taking into account differences between the students and re-teaching when necessarily, gives frequent feedback for all students and checks for understanding by using probing questions. " (Sakarneh M.)

Another aspect that is noted as being important in effective management is, according to Stanovich and Jordan (1998), that the effective teacher is one capable of monitoring student's behavior in the classroom. There are numerous practical aspects of classroom management that are mentioned in the literature, such as the teacher's ability to"...manage the instruction time for the students and themselves and....the ability to review the previous days lesson, before start a new lesson which is important in connecting the previous and the new knowledge for the students, also ensuring their understanding by using questions and monitoring students progress frequently." (Sakarneh M.)

However many educationists are of the opinion that in terms of the central problematics of classroom management, the main issue mentioned refers to methods of enforcing discipline; which can also serve to enhance classroom management and the learning process. There is little doubt in an overview of the literature that maintaining order and discipline in the classroom is a central contemporary concern. Tauber (1999) asks the central question; "What helps student learn?." The answer to this question relates strongly to discipline in classroom management. "...when data from...research analyses and surveys from experts are combined, classroom management tops a list of twenty-eight categories that most influence learning." (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

3. Student behavior

The degree of successful classroom management is determined to a large extent by positive student behavior. There is a renewed focus in the contemporary literature on the question of student behavior as it relates to theories and models of classroom management. There is also an emphasis on techniques and methods of enforcing discipline within the classroom in a non-coercive way.

However, the perceived lack of discipline and the generally low level of student behavior in many modern schools have raised concern among educationists and pedagogical theorists. This point is emphasized by the fact that a Gallup Poll of the public's attitudes toward public schools has "...for almost three decades identified lack of discipline as one of the biggest problems in public schools." (Tauber, 1999, p. 3) Studies have also "...singled out lack of discipline as the number one problem more often than any other. Classroom management strategies, a more palatable name for "discipline," clearly need some attention! " (Tauber, 1999, p. 3)

The situation with regard to discipline in the classroom has not changed much in the last few decades. As Charles (1981) points out, discipline and poor student behavior in the classroom is a major problem in schools. (Charles 1981, p. 13) the 1999 study by Tauber also reiterates this concern and states that,

Discipline, class control, classroom management -- by whatever name you call it -- keeping order in the classroom is a teacher's greatest concern. You may not like that fact; you may wish it weren't true. But it is. That's a given in the daily life of teachers. Discipline is so crucial, so basic to everything else in the classroom, that most educators agree: it is the one thing that makes or breaks teachers. (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

The literature also points out that the question and problematics of discipline and student behavior in classroom management has been a perennial issue in education. "A sampling of more than fifty years of discipline articles repeatedly cites classroom management as a major worry of educators." (Tauber, 1999, p. 4) in other words, the question of discipline as it relates to the control and motivation of positive student behavior is seen to be an imperative factor in good classroom management and in the creation of a positive and achievement - orientated classroom environment.

A the ability to govern is the first essential of success in teaching. For instance, 25% of the teachers who fail do so primarily because of troubles growing out of discipline... one of the most perplexing problems facing many teachers in our schools today -- particularly beginning teachers -- is maintaining control in the classroom. (Tauber, 1999, p. 4)

Another important aspect of classroom management that has come to the fore in more recent studies is the more inclusive and holistic approach to the understanding of discipline and student problems. As experts in the field state, it is important to realize that the issue of student behavior and the problems of discipline extend beyond the confines of the classroom and includes the student's personal histories and social and psychological environments. These are variables that should be included in the understanding of student behavior; and are also factors that complicate the issue of classroom discipline.

In the real world, these children cannot simply leave their out-of-school problems at the school's front door in the morning and collect them at day's end. Students' problems will accompany them to your classroom. Skills to manage students, all kinds of students with all kinds of problems, are essential to even the most effective teacher.

(Tauber, 1999, p. 10/11)

4.1. Supportive discipline and achievement

Disciplinary methods that support student achievements and enhance the possibility of learning development are usually considered under the rubric of supportive discipline. According to a study by Englander, (1987) there are six essential conditions for good discipline to exist in the classroom. These are described as follows: " (1) schools must be a good place; (2) students are trusted; (3) rules are established; (4) students agree to and accept the rules; (5) rules are open to change; and (6) rule violations have consequences." (Englander, 1987, p. 97) in the light of these conditions, studies show that successful class management often relies on an environment and disciplinary conditions that are accepted by the students and not rebelled against.

In other words, the concept of supportive disciple relies on a classroom management system in which the "...student feels in control of her destiny, finds friends and success in school..." (Englander, 1987, p. 97) This in turn leads to and enhances the level of academic and other forms of student achievement.

The teacher's role in terms of classroom management therefore is a supportive one and is allied more to the interactionalist and noninterventionist models of management. This view also places emphasis on interpersonal contact and the establishment of relationships between students and teachers, as opposed to the distance model of discipline in the interventionist approach.

Many studies in classroom management claim that this interactive approach to discipline produces positive results. "You will be impressed with how pupil attitudes will change as we change our attitude. As we have already noted, such interpersonal teacher behavior as empathy, genuineness, and respect are reflected not only in pupil attitude but increased academic achievement..." (Englander, 1987, p. 97)

On the other hand the literature also stresses that there must be rules in the classroom and that these rules must have consequences that are recognized by the students. "Students must realize that there are consequences to all behavior and that rule violations are not to be ignored." (Englander, 1987, p. 101)

These studies also point out that the consequences of poor or negative behavior need not be linked to strict authoritative punishments. This is another important aspect to supportive discipline, where the consequences of flouting the rules are administered in a way that encourages the student to conform, rather the forcing conformity on the basis of an authoritative distance. One example of this approach cited by Englander (1987) states that, "The offender is confronted with the behavior and its consequences in terms of personal need satisfaction and the deprivation of others' needs and rights." (Englander, 1987, p. 101) in other words the consequences of the student's actions and the punishment meted out are explained to the students in terms of the effects that the student's actions have on themselves and others.

A central difference posited by supportive discipline can be seen in the view of the "logical consequences" of action that transgress rules, as opposed to the more traditional view of punishments. The logical consequences refer to"...the reality of the social order, not of the person...," while punishment refers to "...the power of a personal authority." (Dreikurs and Grey, 1968, p.71) the idea of logical consequences is a more interactionalist approach which includes the understanding and involvement of the students in disciplinary procedures.

In general the contemporary literature on this aspect tends to conform to the above views in which a more interactionalist approach rather than an interventionist approach is preferred. Many educationists have moved away from the idea of authoritative punishment as a means of control in the classroom and adopted an approach that emphasizes personal responsibility and relationship building. The applications of supportive discipline have been shown to have the effect of enhancing the classroom environment and consequently increasing learning motivation and achievement results and standards.

4.1.1. School and classroom climate

Achievement, motivation and classroom management, from both the student and the teacher's point-of-view, are often strongly influenced and affected by the importance of school and classroom climate. Overall school climate is an important issue in student development and achievement, as it relates directly not only educational issues per se but also to the atmosphere and the working environment in the classroom. The importance of the school climate and its relationship to student achievement and development is expressed by Esposito (1999) in terms of the various aspects of the school environment that contributes to or hinders student development; and which is independent of the effects of the family context. (Esposito, 1999. p. 365) the school climate is often seen by many educational experts as being extremely important in terms of child development.

There are many studies which show the importance of school climate in terms of learning potential, as well as related disciplinary issues.

As one study clearly states; "The interest in the study of school climate stems from a major belief that...school climate is thought to be linked to educational outcomes, especially achievement." (Haynes, Emmons & Ben-Avie, 1997, p. 321)

There are many different but interrelated conceptualizations of "school climate" (Sprott, 2004, p 556) One general view refers to school climate as the climate or atmosphere which can be conducive, or otherwise, to learning and interacting and the class management in general. Sprott (2004) for example states that "effective classrooms appear to promote positive relationships among classroom members and have procedures oriented toward academic success." (Sprott, 2004, p 556) comprehensive definition which encompasses many of the central issues and areas that relate to school climate and discipline is suggested by Esposito (1999). Esposito views school climate as a."..umbrella term to describe the extent to which discipline problems affect a school. "(Esposito, 1999, p. 365) Furthermore, school climate is viewed by educationists as a psychological factor within has a profound effect on the students learning abilities and achievements.

Most experts in the field view school climate as an essential determining aspect in the understanding and advancement of student growth and achievement.

The term school climate is also linked to school and classroom management and the way that staff are treated as well the extent to which their psychological and achievement needs are met. This has a concomitant effect on the way that the teacher's interact with the student and the impact on long-term achievement results (Sprott, 2004, p 556)

Studies in the area of school climate and its effect on achievement state that the school climate is intimately linked to aspects of educational outcomes, particularly with regard to achievement. (Haynes, et al. 1997, p 321) the literature on the subject indicates the importance of school climate from many different perspectives.

For example, the interrelationship between school climate and student achievement is explored in an article, Create great school climate, by Vail (2005), which focuses on the way in which school climate affects teaching. The school climate in terms of teacher's morale and satisfaction influences student achievement and has an effect on classroom dynamics and management. Vail also refers to the fact that some schools can have a "toxic climate" in which there is poor teacher-student communications and atmosphere. This can produce a negative affect on achievement in both the short- and long-term.

There is little doubt that, as these studies and others show, a positive school climate provides opportunities for improved behavior patterns among student. More importantly, as Sprott (2004), among others, has found, classroom climates have important effects on children's perceptions and behaviors.

Conversely, what most of the literature indicates is that there is a strong correlation between poor school climate and lack of student achievement. (Haynes, et al. 1997, p 321) Studies have shown that school climate is linked to discipline through its affect on behavior. Haynes, et al. And others have noted this link in the ways that school climate affects student behavior.

Violence and misdemeanors in schools has raised concern among educationists in recent years. Violence in schools obviously has an extremely negative impact on achievement. In this regard it has been found that a positive school climate can be instrumental in reducing the rates of violence and misdemeanors. Sprott particularly mentions the importance of emotional support in the classroom as a means of dealing with high-risk children and tempering the causes of violent behavior. Sprott however states that there has not been sufficient research into this aspect. (Sprott, 2004, p 553) This relativity paucity of research into the relationship between school climate and certain variables is a matter of concern that is mentioned in a number of studies.

As Esposio states, "There is a dearth of research about the influence of an overall measure of school climate on children's social and academic outcomes." (Esposito, 1999, p. 365) There is therefore a need for further research into the variables and factors that influence and affect school climate, discipline and achievement

4.2. Positive teacher-student relationships

Many educationists stress that the teacher at whatever level of schooling needs to achieve a balance between discipline and other developmental aspects of teaching. "Educators need a balance between discipline theory and its practice in the classroom. This is especially important in today's education climate, with its increased demands for teacher accountability." (Classroom Management) This balance also has consequences for the establishment of positive teacher-student relationships.

Rudolf Dreikurs Discipline Theory is worth noting in this regard.

Firstly, Dreikurs posits that encouragement is a more appropriate response to discipline problems as it opens up pathways of discussion and further learning interaction from the teacher's perspective. A central aspect of this principle and one which relates to Dreikurs' model and discipline, is that the consequences of behavior should be logically consistent with the behavior.

Rudolf Dreiker's model or Discipline Theory is based on the ideas of the social psychologist Alfred Adler who "...espoused that the central motivation of all humans is to belong and to be accepted by others." (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115). In other words, this view sees all human interaction and behavior as "... directed toward achieving social recognition." (Burke J. And Gahan B.)

Importantly, this leads to the practical application of methods of dealing with discipline and misbehavior in the classroom. As Wolfgang (1999) explains; "....when a student is unsuccessful in obtaining social acceptance, a pattern of misbehavior begins." (Burke J. And Gahan B.) He adds, "If teachers can help misbehaving students understand their mistaken, faulty goals and provide them with avenues for group acceptance, then such students will rationally change their own behaviors." (Burke J. And Gahan B.)

This view provides the underlying rationale of a theory of class management which stresses close and positive student - teacher interaction and relationships. This model of discipline "... believes the correction of students' misbehavior is the result of a teacher actively showing a student how to belong." (Dreikurs, Rudolf) in this regard the notion of logical consequences replaces the idea of punishment.

Dreikurs, Rudolf)

These practical applications of theory tend to suggest that class management is progressive and advanced when their is a deeper connection and relationship between teacher and student

The idea of logical consequences as opposed to authoritative punishment has been briefly referred to and relates to the development of interaction and a positive relationship between teacher and student in the process of class management and discipline. This refers to the idea that a child who is disobedient should not be punished as such but rather should be helped in a more constructive way, which leads to the idea of logical consequences for actions. In other words, positive behavior must be seen to elicit positive consequences; on the other hand bad behavior must be seen to elicit the logical consequences of that action. It is important that the teacher enables the child to understand the connection between his to her actions and the consequences. The entire model is based on a principle of learning as a process of encouragement, positive as well as negative reinforcement and confidence building.

This approach is related to the view that the origins of bad behavior in the classroom are essentially a call for attention and acceptance.

This is more often identified with disturbing behavior. Many times this occurs because students are not getting the recognition that they feel they deserve. If students cannot get attention for their positive behaviors (being on task, completing work, arriving on time, etc.), they will seek it with inappropriate behaviors (continually calling out, refusing to work, asking irrelevant questions, etc.

Dreikurs, Rudolf)

In this regard the teacher's task therefore is to "...recognize students' inner goal and them help the students change to the more appropriate goal of learning how to belong with others." (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115).

Dreikurs' theory is aimed at adjusting and altering the symptoms of bad behavior into positive learning experiences. Another important result is that it tends to promote mutual respect between teachers and students. Furthermore, it helps the child to develop a sense of connection with others and understand the necessity for class discipline

5. Perceptions and interaction

The topic of discipline in schools is an emotive and important issue. This is due to the fact that discipline is perceived as an essential part of effective classroom learning and a vital part of good classroom management. The general perception from the educationist's point-of-view is that, "An orderly, purposeful classroom with pupils actively engaged in learning provides positive conditions for learning. " (Teachers' Perceptions of Discipline in Scottish Schools)

In a survey of teachers in the United Kingdom it was found that;

The percentage of secondary teachers who see discipline as either a serious or very serious problem changed over the years from 36% in 1990, to 34% in 1996 to 59% in 2004. This is quite a marked rise and has statistical significance. As already indicated, the changing nature of society was seen as a possible explanation for this state of affairs.

(Teachers' Perceptions of Discipline in Scottish Schools)

Furthermore, the survey revealed that approximately one in five teachers found dealing with undisciplined behavior difficult. (Teachers' Perceptions of Discipline in Scottish Schools)

The general view of the way in which bad behavior disrupts class management and teaching, is expressed as followed by one teacher.

What I find most exhausting is the low level constant disruption caused by pupils who cannot concentrate on a task... At times I feel I accomplish very little, because so much of a lesson is wasted supplying pencils, chasing up homework, cajoling/nagging, giving punishment exercises etc. To pupils who are perfectly pleasant but who cannot/will not take responsibility for their behavior.

Teachers' Perceptions of Discipline in Scottish Schools)

2002 study found that there is also an increasing perception that serious discipline problems are increasing in schools. "Discipline problems in a school may contribute to an overall climate in which violence may occur. Schools that suffer from student drug or alcohol use, physical conflicts, or student disrespect for teachers may be filled with pressures that result in school violence." (Public school principals' perceptions of discipline issues at school)

Research also indicates that teacher's often do not perceive the necessity for courses on class management. Tauber states that the way that teachers perceive their own classroom management behavior is often seen in terms of on the job development rather the coursework. The research shows that teachers "...attribute that behavior's development to actual experiences on the job, subsequent years on the job, and student teaching -- in that order of importance." (Tauber, 1999, p. 10/11) Tauber questions this perception of the importance of coursework. "Unfortunately, learning while doing seems to be the norm. Coursework while in college, what little there is of it, is perceived to be less of a factor in the development of classroom management competency. " (Tauber, 1999, p. 10/11)

The literature also points out that while there is a wide range of data and studies on teacher perceptions of discipline in class management, there is comparatively little research of student perceptions of discipline in schools. However, a study by Thorson (1996), cited in a thesis by McMaster (2002), suggests that students and teachers perceptions of discipline are different. In this study students interviewed indicated "...that they may not like discipline but they did see the necessity for it." (McMaster C. 2002)

This study also elaborates on the important perception t that, "Students were seeking liberation from a rote enforcement and standard procedures. They felt that teachers who taught well and communicated with students could avoid some discipline problems in their classrooms." (McMaster C. 2002) This is a significant observation as it indicates that the students favor the more interactionalist and noninterventionist approach to discipline where the relationship between teacher and student is emphasized. This also indicates that the authoritarian approach is less acceptable to students.

Studies also show that student perceptions of discipline favor a more inclusive approach. For example, it was found that they felt that parents should be more involved in establishing disciplinary patterns and actions. "Parent contact was one strategy these students felt should be a constant from the beginning. It was also considered to be one of the most effective discipline practices noted." (McMaster C. 2002)

6. Conclusion

The issues and problematics of classroom management in the contemporary educational environment is a complex one. On the one hand the increase in school violence, as evidenced by tragedies such as the Columbine massacre, is indicative of the serious discipline problem in our schools. On the other hand the literature, while not doubting the seriousness of discipline problems, is also careful to point out that the issue of disciple need not be blown out of proportion. There are many schools where there are little if any disciple problem.... "School discipline problems are often blown out of proportion. There are many schools where serious discipline problems are rare." (McMaster C. 2002)

What is however evident and increasingly reiterated in the literature is that the way of dealing with and perceiving discipline in the classroom are changing. There is generally a movement away from authoritarian and one-sided class management models and punishment. The Interventionist model has been shown to be largely ineffective in dealing with the root causes of discipline problems. "Research has already shown that this type of discipline does not work well for the chronic misbehaving students and those that appear to be unresponsive to current discipline practices." (McMaster C. 2002) Concomitantly, there is greater pressure on educators to provide a more supportive and integrative form of discipline and class management. "Administrators now face considerable pressure to improve school discipline and provide greater support to students with disabilities..." (McMaster C. 2002)

One of the essential facet in class management is the recognition that dealing with discipline requires a more holistic and integrative model of student behavior. This has resulted in approaches that focus on the integration of facets of the school process as well as the community in dealing with the problem of discipline. The inculcation of a positive and supportive school and classroom climate is also considered an integral part of classroom management.

In the final analysis, as Hansen (1979) has stated; "The fact is that in classroom management there are few absolutes, no panaceas, and none who can evidence a 'failsafe' system' (Hansen, 1979, p. 41) Classroom management is a complex issue and must take cognizance of a multitude of many internal and external factors. This is especially the case when considering the problem of discipline. However, the literature shows a strong tendency towards a noninterventionist and supportive mode of management.