Cloning concepts and applications

Cloning

The term cloning is commonly construed as reproductive cloning or the asexual genetic replication of a living organism (Cloning, 2005). However, in reality, scientists use the term cloning to describe all the different processes that are involved in the duplication of biological material. While there is virtually universal agreement that human cloning is neither safe nor ethically desirable, the research work being done in other cloning techniques continues to greatly interest scientists and the public alike. This is because cloning holds the promise of breaking new ground in biological knowledge and medical treatments. However, like reproductive cloning, other cloning processes, too, pose ethical issues for the medical profession and society. Since a basic understanding of the different types of cloning is essential to any discussion on the ethical issues involved, it is the objective of this paper to describe the different types of cloning processes. The descriptions will be accompanied by a discussion on the ethical issues that arise from the different cloning techniques.

Essentially, there are three types of cloning processes or technologies. These are recombinant DNA technology or cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. All three types differ from one another, both in their techniques and their aims (Cloning, 2005). Interestingly, it will be seen that ethical concerns arise from both the technique and the aims involved in all three types of cloning.

Of the three types of cloning technologies, recombinant DNA technology is perhaps the least controversial. Also referred to as "DNA cloning," "molecular cloning," and "gene cloning," this cloning process involves the transferring of a DNA fragment from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element or a cloning vector such as a bacterial plasmid. Once the DNA fragment is transferred, it is then allowed to propagate in the alien host. DNA cloning is considered important to research work that is being done in areas such as genetic engineering of organisms, gene therapy, and sequencing genomes (Cloning, 2005). Although gene therapy can theoretically be used to treat certain genetic conditions, the introduction of corrected copies of faulty genes through virus vectors involves the risk of many side-effects such as toxicity and inflammation (Hanna, 2005). Thus, it is evident that DNA cloning has safety issues, which should ethically concern the medical profession. Besides such safety issues, the knowledge gained through DNA cloning can well lead to work in the area of genetic enhancement or genetically engineered babies. As such, there is also a larger issue of ethics that needs to be resolved by both the medical profession and society at large.

The process used by reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning is more similar to each other than DNA cloning because both these techniques rely on "somatic cell nuclear transfer." This is a process wherein the nucleus of a donor adult cell is transferred to an egg whose nucleus and, therefore, genetic material has been removed. Electricity is then passed through the recipient egg to stimulate division or the formation of an embryo (Cloning, 2005). Once the formation of an embryo begins, any similarity between reproductive and therapeutic cloning ends since the two technologies basically differ in their very aims.

Reproductive cloning, as its very name indicates, is interested in creating organisms, which includes animals and humans, with an identical genetic make-up to an already existing organism. Therefore, in this process, the embryo that has been formed is transferred to a host body, in which it can grow to full term. In contrast, therapeutic cloning aims at just extracting stem cells from the nascent, five-day-old embryo or blastocyte. Once the desired embryonic stem cells are extracted for research purposes, the blastocyte or embryo is destroyed (Cloning, 2005).

The importance to biology of reproductive and therapeutic cloning differs significantly. For instance, therapeutic cloning, it is hoped, will lead to cures for fatal and debilitating diseases such as Alzheimer's, cancer, and diabetes based on cells harvested from cloned embryos (Friend, 2003). Scientists also hope to be able to use therapeutic cloning to repair or replace diseased and damaged parts of the human body. Further, scientists say that even if they are unable to solve the current safety issues in the technique such as stem cells turning cancerous (Coghlan, 2005), they will, at the least, be able to study how diseases develop by intentionally cloning a human embryo with a disease (the Associated Press, 2005).

In marked contrast, reproductive cloning of humans basically aims at genetic enhancement or designer babies. Indeed, this is precisely why human cloning has the world up in arms because such statements raise the horrifying specter of eugenics. Besides the prospect of abuse of such technology, a great many people believe that it is ethically wrong to play God by interfering with Nature's design, namely, genetics (Cloning, 2005). Of course, reproductive cloning of animals is currently being promoted as important to medical science for several reasons such as the ability to repopulate endangered species such as the Asian bison known as the gaur (Cloning, 2005). Scientists are also working with reproductive cloning in order to see whether, for example, genetically engineered cows can be made resistant to mad cow disease, or if the organs of genetically modified animals such as pigs can be used for the purposes of transplantation into humans (the Associated Press, 2005).

Thus, it appears that both therapeutic and reproductive cloning can prove to be highly important to the biological and medical sciences. However, it is important to note that the technologies are far from meeting accepted standards of either medical or social ethics.

In therapeutic cloning, concerns have been raised over the destruction of unwanted embryos, and the future abuse of such technology (Cloning, 2005). The fear of abuse is, in fact, all too real since therapeutic cloning is just one step away from reproductive cloning. But the fear of eugenics or playing God is not the only ethical issue involved. for, opponents of the technology also argue that an embryo has life and the moral status of a person from the moment of conception. Therefore, it is immoral to kill the nascent life that is the embryo. Advocates of therapeutic cloning refute this argument by pointing out that the technology holds the promise of curing millions of adults of hitherto incurable diseases, and, therefore, the life of an already living being should be valued far more than one that has yet to fully form (Hanna (a), 2005).

To solve this problem, many countries have permitted stem cell research to be conducted only on in vitro embryos, or embryos that were discarded during infertility treatments (Hanna (a), 2005). However, while such a step may resolve the moral problem of creating human embryos purely as a means to an end, it must be remembered that other ethical issues such as the risks of side effects and the prevention of future abuse will continue to be of concern to both the medical profession and society.

Reproductive cloning of humans and animals is, by far, the most problematic of all the cloning processes as far as its ethical impact is concerned. for, as observed earlier, this process directly raises the issue of humankind playing God through interfering with Nature's design. Besides the question of the principal involved, society is rightly worried about the technology leading to the creation of designer babies and subsequently, a designer race. Such a possibility, it is feared, will lead to even sharper social divides between the rich and the poor.