Cognitive and affective psychology: major approaches and processes

Cognitive and Affective Psychology

According to Eysenck and Keane (2005, p. 1), cognitive psychology focuses upon how the human faculties make sense of th einvrionment, as well as the processes involved in making decisions regarding appropriate responses to the environment. The specific processes involved in cognitive psychology include attention, perception, learning, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning and thinking.

According to the authors, there are four major approaches to human cognition (Eysenck & Keane, 2005, p. 3): experimental cognitive psychology; cognitive neuropsychology; computational cognitive science; and cognitive neuroscience.

Affective psychology concerns human emotion and the effect of this upon behavior; in other words, the outward expression of inner feelings. According to Brett et al. (2003), many professionals regard the affective domain as including three subcomponents: feeling, cognition, and behavior; where feeling refers to physiological sensation, cognition to subjective thoughts about such sensations, and behavior that relates to both. The affective domain furthermore also relates to the ability of the individual to manage his or her own emotions while functioning among other individuals with emotions and related behavior of their own.

It also encompasses our awareness or discernment of our and other's emotions, the ability to connect our emotions to those of others, the display of emotion, and the ability to manage or regulate one's emotions.

2: Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is related to the field of cognitive psychology, but is more concerned with the biological foundations of mental processes than their psychological origins. In other words, the biological processes within the brain are investigated to determine how these relate to the cognitive process.

4: Memory Models and Processes

Memory can be defined as the human mental ability to store and recall information regarding stimuli that were encountered before, but are no longer present in the environment or accessible to perception (Science Encyclopedia). During a lifetime, the human brain gathers and stores a vast body of information. Memories of past experiences help the individual to understand new experiences, as well as to anticipate future experiences or dangers. Decisions can then be made regarding behavior, and whether to avoid or seek experiences that are related to specific memories.

One example of a memory model is procedural memory. This involves recalling the steps necessary to perform certain procedures and activities. Such activities could include skills such as cycling or swimming, cooking, or building a model. Well-learned procudures will have the effect of a task being performed without conscious awareness. In some activities, this means that the attention can be directed to other important environmental elements.

5: Knowledge Representation and Manipulation

Human beings receive a vast array of information and knowledge via the senses. In order to organize and distinguish this information in degrees of importance, processes such as knowledge representation and manipulation are used. In other words, human beings select and control the disorganized raw data received through the sense organs (Sternberg and Mio, 2008, p. 303-304). When receiving this information, it is necessary to relate it to already existing internal information. Knowledge representation then means that information is investigated and organized according to its perceived importance. Knowledge manipulation means the use of acquired knowledge to perform cognitive tasks.

Influential Tenets of Psychotherapy

1:

Psychotherapy functions on the basis of a number of tenets. What complicates this is the fact that different types of psychotherapy have different tenets. In order to maintain a focus on cognitive and affective psychology, psychotherapy that focuses on these aspects will be considered for its basic principles.

Donald Meichenbaum (in Zeig, 1992, p. 116), lists several of these principles. The first principle of psychotherapy, especially as it relates to the cognitive and affective aspects, is the view that beahvior is influenced by thoughts, feelings and psychological processes, as well as the consequences of these reciprocal influences. According to this view, there is a circular, reciprocal view of behavior rather than a linear one, with causes, effects and outcomes. The outcomes themselves perpetuate the consequences and exacerbate any negative feelings that may result. In other words, thoughts and feelings influence each other, rather than one always being the cause and the other the effect.

The second tenet is the complexity of cognition, which the author gropus into cognitive events, processes, and structures. This complexity leads directly to the third tenet, which is the purpose of the therapist to help clients understand how they construct reality by means of their reciprocal cognitive and affective processes. One aspect of this is creating data that confirms erroneous thinking. In other words, there are various ways in which therapeutic clients elicit responses or select events as confirmation for their thinking, and the perpetuation of their belief and the associated emotion.

The fourth principle concerns the therapeutic relationship. In contrast to rationally oriented forms of therapy, the cognitive therapist does not directly oppose erroneous thinking. Instead, he or she forms a relationship with the client. This means that the therapist attempts to see the world from the client's viewpoint, and then finding ways within this viewpoint to gradually guide the client towards a more realisitc mode of thinking. This is what the author refers to as the "therapeutic alliance," where there is a partnership between the therapist and client in order to achieve the goal of healing.

The fifth principle acknowledges the influence of hisotircal, developental, familial, and sociolcultural factors upon the cognitive and affective aspects that arise in the therapy. These aspects must be addressed as strongly as the cognition, feelings, and behavior they cause. At the same time, a process of transference relates to therapy, where the client tends to transfer blame for his or her feelings and behavior to other people or events. Such transference prohibits the therapeutic process, as it encourages a tendency to avoid responsibility, and also guilt.

Finally, the seventh important principle of psychotherapy is post-therapeutic care, where the therapist is to focus upon relapse prevention and behavioral training. In this aspect, the therapist acknowledges that the therapy as such does not end. Depending upon the severity and nature of the problem, the therapist might for example suggest support groups, training sessions, reading materials, or informal therapy sessions to reinforce what was accomplished.

2:

The major themes within cognitive psychology include perception, language, attention, memory, problem solving, decision making and judgment, and intelligence. To some degree, all of these relate to the tenets mentioned above. The psychotherapist can for example work on helping a person change his or her perception of a problem to help increase the client's problem solving, decision making, and judgment abilities. Furthermore, each client has a unique set of memories that influences his or her perceptions and attention to various aspects of the problem.

While language and intelligence are not as closely related to the tenets above, they are nonetheless also relevant. A specific type of language is for example used in providing the tools for problem solving. Intelligence also manifests in unique ways in each person, while different types of intelligence can also be developed. The psychotherapist can determine the specific influence of an intelligence type on a person's unique problem, and then use this in order to cultivate a higher level of intelligence for the specific purpose of promoting the healing process.

3:

The underlying themes within cognitive psychology, as mentioned above, are generally supported in the literature relating to the field. The tenets of psychotherapy (see no. 1 above) are also in keeping with the currently recognized principles of the humanities. Human beings are recognized as autonomous, with a unique set of problems, concerns, and tools to handle these. The psychotherapist's role is then to enhance the already existing tools to help those who need it develop their intelligence and problem-solving abilities in order to promote the healing process.

Question 2

1:

Both the cognitive and affective domains are important considerations within psychotherapy. Indeed, the two often function within a causal relationship to each other. In the Communicative Theory of emotion, as expounded by Brett et al. (2003), for example, emotions are directly related to conscious or unconscious cognitive evaluations. These cognitive evaluations then cause an emotional response, which might include happiness, sadness, or anger. The subconscious internalization of the original cognitive evaluation and accompanying emotion could then result in behavior-related problems such as prejudice. Sometimes such behavior problems are so deeply seated that they need to be treated by means of psychotherapy.

Cognitive therapy, as explained by Michael Herkov (2010), acknowledges the relationship between thought (the cognitive aspect) and feeling (the affective). It is then the task of the therapist to identify thoughts and beliefs that are inaccurate. This inaccuracy causes certain perceptions of a situation, which can further lead to disorders such as depression. The psychotherapist then corrects the inaccurate beliefs, and emotional healing is achieved.

2:

In order to maintain ethics in professional research and practice when working with clients, the Psychology profession is subject to the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Three ethical concerns addressed in this document include: 1) Beneficence and Nonmaleficence; 2) Fidelity and Responsibility; and 3) Integrity. There are several other concerns and more specific ethical guidelines in the document.

Beneficence and Nonmaleficence are "Principle a" of the document. This means that Psychologists are to aim for the benefit of their clients and research subjects, while avoiding harm. This also has a wider application, in that all professional conduct and interaction -- also with colleagues -- should adhere to this principle. Conflicts that arise are to be resolved in a way that either avoids or minimizes harm. Under this principle, it is important that psychologists understand th eimportance of maintaining a healthy level of scientific and professional judgments and actions. When these are jeapordized by overwork or illness, the professional should take action to eliminate the problem.

Principle B. Of the document is Fidelity and Responsibility. This principle concerns the relationship of trust the psychologist cultivates with his or her professional associations. In a wider sense, this also translates to social and community responsibility. In addition, the principle of responsibility entails that the professional takes responsibility for his or her actions, while maintaining and upholding professional standards of conduct and research. This is accomplished by the professional's association and consultation with relevant institutions and professionals to help guide the adherence to this principle.

Principle C, Integrity, concerns the pschologist's research and his or her relationship with information and results. In this, it is the requirement of the principle to maintain accuracy, honesty and truthfulness in all apscts of the sience, teaching and practice of the psychological profession. In addition to obvious misconduct such as stealing, cheating, or fraudulent activities, the psychologist is also to avoid unwise commitments or deceptive practice. In cases where deception is justified, the goal should be to maximize benefit and minimize harm. Any resulting mistrust should then be corrected as soon as possible.

Working with human beings is highly stressful, in addition to being an imprecise science.

Professionals in the field are therefore often subject to highly complex ethical problems, which should be resolved in order to maintain the ethical principles mentioned above. In order to avoid pitfalls, the psychological professional should then carefully consider any ethical pitfalls before engaging in potentially compromising actions.

One pitfall could relate to the professional relationship between the client and psychologist. Troubled clients build trust with the psychologist, which is required. However, this trust could become inappropriate when clients expect their psychologists to engage in actions outside of the professional office relationship. Sexual or financial bribery could for example form part of this. In order to avoid this, the professional should establish the ground rules of the relationship at the start of the meetings. The focus should be positive, upon what the aims of the sessions are, and how they are to be accomplished. When difficult situations arise, the professional should then remind the client of the reasons and nature of the contact sessions.

Another example of a dilemma that could face a psychologist is criminal offenses. The trust relationship requires the psychologist to retain confidentiality in the relationship with clients. However, if possible harm can come to the client or others, such as in the case of threatening murder, theft, or vandalism, the professional is ethically obliged to report this. The psychologist should strive to avoid harm and maximize beneficence. This cannot always be avoided, but once again, it is a good idea to establish the rules of meetings at the beginning, where the client knows what types of information can be divulged outside the contact sessions and what is subject to the confidentiality rule.

Not all difficult ethical situations can be avoided. Psychologists and other professionals in the cognitive sciences must at all times aim to protect themselves, clients, and the wider community involved from harm. Such protection helps to maintain an ethical basis.