Paper Example Undergraduate 6,879 words

Mentoring of African American Male

Last reviewed: April 15, 2014 ~35 min read

¶ … School African-American Males Who Are Attending a Community-Based After-School Program

ANTICIPATED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A qualitative case study would be conducted by the researcher. As described by Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2009), a case study explores and analyzes the behavioral patterns of an exclusive group over an extended period of time. In this approach the researcher analyzes the behavior of the participants while they participate in the intended activities and their response to the outside stimuli. (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009) Case studies are bounded in an approach that connects time (existence) with a place (environment) (Stake, 2005). The case study approach provides the researcher with a stage to examine the patterns of behavior that the individuals portray.

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

The purpose of the study is to explore the behaviors of middle-school African-American males who are attending a community-based after-school program. In addition to that, the study will explore how a community-based after-school program adheres to the different learning styles of African-American males and the program's vested interest in the use of male mentorship. (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009)

The researcher will use the qualitative phenomenological design, which will support the case study. As indicated by Creswell (2009), phenomenological research is a descriptive approach that uses the inductive approach to describe an event or experience in the manner in which it is lived by the individual or group. (Creswell, 2009) The case study will enable the researcher to investigate the behavior patterns through the eyes of a designated group over an established period of time. (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009).

The academic achievement and social maturity of the African-American male are topics of national concerns. For numerous urban settings, the community-based after-school program is an essential instrument for enriching the education status and eliminating the negative indicators associated with out-of-school time. This study, therefore, aims at identifying the behaviors of the middle-school African-American male who are attending a community-based after-school program. (Brock, 2009 & Williams, 2008).

This chapter will present an outline of the design for the research study that will include the participants and research setting, data collection, data analysis, role of the researcher, role of the participants, methodological assumption and limitation, trustworthiness, and ethical considerations. The research study will examine how a community-based after-school program focuses on the various learning styles of middle-school African-American males and the service of male mentorship in the program. The following research questions are used in the research study:

i. What perspectives do community-based program administrators have regarding the necessary characteristics of an after-school program for supporting male mentorship?

ii. What are the perceptions of participants associated with a community-based after-school program in an urban setting in Georgia for program effectiveness of male mentorship among students?

iii. What perceptions do program administrators have concerning the contributing factors which influence how an urban, community-based after-school program addresses the male mentoring of African-American males?

3. DATA COLLECTION

This section of the research highlights the type of data collected, the participants and research setting, the sample procedures and the facts in relation to the validity and authenticity and trustworthiness of the data.

3.1. Primary Data

Primary data can be defined as the first hand data that is collected by the researcher himself for the purpose of the research under consideration. This data is collected through a number of primary research tools, such as questionnaires, surveys, observations, interviews, both face-to-face and telephonic interviews, and focus groups. (Mcisaac & Goeree et al., 2007)

The research is based on the primary data, which will be from the administrators through the process of journaling, one to one interview and focus groups. The researcher will use the research question, in order to get an insight into the perception of the respondents in relation to the use of male mentorship with African-American males (11-14) in a community-based after-school program. The important procedures in relation to the collection of primary data are discussed below:

3.1.1. Participants and Research Setting

The participants of this study would be the administrators in a community based after school program. The researcher will conduct interviews with them so as to understand the issue under consideration in detail and use the collected data to further analyze the perception of the administrators in relation to the essential characteristics of a community based after school program and how well does this program address the male mentoring of the African-American males.

The research study will use participants from a community-based after-school program located in the Southwest section of Atlanta, Georgia. For research purposes, the writer will refer to the after-school location as the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center (pseudonym). The Dreamer's Urban Learning Center functions as a hub for reinforcement and a safe-net for out-of-school time among a population of 300 students.

The student population of the program is described as 90% African-American, 7% Hispanic, 2% Caucasian, and 1% other. In the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center, males account for 41% of the total population. The Dreamer's Urban Learning Center describes 94% of its male population as African-American. There is no cost for enrichment services at the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center. Enrollment and participation for the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center after-school program is open to all youth of the Southwest section of Atlanta with no admission or care costs.

3.1.2. Qualitative Sampling and Data Collection

The research will use the process of qualitative sampling. Qualitative sampling can be described as a process of selection of a members of a small group for the purpose of investigating an event of experience. Criterion sampling will function as the foundation for identifying participants for data collection. (Cooper & Schindler, 2006)

Here, criterion sampling can be defined as a process that involves the identification and development of a particular criterion of importance. It also deals with the articulation of these criteria. The research, which includes criterion sampling, involves the systemic review and in-depth analysis of the cases and events that fulfil the identified criterion set. The basic purpose that underlie the deployment of the criterion sampling is the identification of the major system flaws that need improvement. (Miskowicz, 2007)

Since familiarity is an essential part for the operation of the program, the program director will act as a helpful aid for selecting the partakers for the case studies. (Woodside & Wilson, 2003) The method of triangulation will be used to gather data from each of the participants. Data collection process will include: 1) a total of two hours of one on one interviews, 2) observations of at least one hour for each participant and 3) two-week journal entries addressing each of the research questions.

The Dreamer's staff members are key contributors to the study. The after-school staff consists of the program director; the instructor of academic development; the manager of training and delivery; data specialist; youth support specialist and life coach. The qualifications of the staff members include the following: (a) minimum of an associate degree, (b) two years of childcare services, and (c) the possession of strong communication skills. Each staff member of the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center is obligated to receive constant professional development in the area of organizational management.

3.1.3. Procedures and Negotiating Access

The researcher will follow the university's protocol and governing regulations to secure authorization for the completion of the research study, The experiences of African-American males aged (11-13) and their association with a community-based after-school program in an urban setting in Georgia. Argosy University, Atlanta will be the institution granting permission for the qualitative study. The researcher will submit an expedited application, a checklist, and cover letter to the IRB Review and Certification of Compliance.

As a prerequisite, each participant must serve a minimum of 20 days in the Dreamer's after-school program. For the qualitative study, the researcher shall inquiry 30 candidates as subjects for the purpose of data collection. The researcher will select the candidates on the basis of simple random sampling. Random, here, can be defined as the process of selecting random samples. Under this method, each element of the population has an equal probability of getting selected. (Brus & De Gruijter, 1997)

The researcher will notify the requested participants chosen for the case studies. Permission forms will be mailed for the consent of the participant. Before the researcher proceeds with each participant will be required to sign and return the permission form. Interaction with the participant, for the purpose of getting permission, will be done via telephone contact and email. The researcher will work to build a rapport with the administrators, who in this case will be the contributors, which will establish an environment with a supportive discourse between the participant and the researcher.

Bogdan & Biklen (2003) indicated that the researcher should seek to create a rapport with subjects. This is because it promotes a healthy relationship throughout the research study. At the start of the research process, the researcher must encourage and reassure the contributors, who may feel self-conscious or on edge with the environment or study procedures (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003; Stuberfield, 2008).

The qualitative interview allows the researcher significant latitude in the order of the interviewing process. Bogdan and Biklen (2003) cautioned against unyielding interview procedures. These acts could obstruct the participants' willingness or capability to present their personal story. The researcher will employ the cultural sensitive approach to assist participants in erecting their realities and aiding the researcher in summarizing the triumphs and struggles of the African-American male and their experiences in a community-based after-school program (Tillman, 2006).

The after-school staff of the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center will provide three focus group interviews. The focus group interviews will assist the researcher by supplying feedback regarding the obstacles (challenges), the strengths and the value of service provided by the after-school program. Six to eight members of the Dreamer's after-school staff will partake in the three focus interviews for thirty-minute sessions. The rationale for the Dreamer's focus group interview is to provide qualitative data and insight into the opinions, perceptions and attitudes of the participants. Focus group interviews will be transcribed and analyzed using the NVivo9 system. The NVivo9 system will code the replies from the focus group interviews. This action will help to identify major themes and output findings from the collected data. (Welsh, 2002)

As suggested by Morgan and Krueger (1998), the focus group interview can enable the researcher to have an insight into the perceptions, feelings and mode of thinking of the respondents. Respondents ponder on questions articulated by the researcher and they make further responses based on the comments of others. It is not the goal of a focus group to reach a consensus on any matter, nor should it move to disagree, rather it should aim at exploring an issue in detail. (Gay et al., 2009).

The purpose for each session of a focus group meeting is to gain high quality data from a social meeting whereas respondents state their perspective in the company of others in a similar situation (Gay et al., 2009; Morgan & Krueger, 1998). The researcher will use the focus group interview to produce a nonjudgmental environment that extract different perspectives about the challenges and strengths of the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center without the anxieties of peer pressure, voting or reaching a consensus.

3.1.4. Trustworthiness

3.1.4.1. Transferability

Responses from focus group interviews will offer rich data toward the effectiveness of the Dreamer's curriculum services. Through the work of Brock (2009), the theme of behavior was frequent during the series of focus group interviews. Respondents in a focus group provide innovative ideas, on the basis of their experience, through which the organizations can further enhance their strengths and improve their weaknesses. (Lee & Lee, 2009)

According to Brock (2009), behavior control was described as the readiness of a child to consent to the limitations and rules enforced by schools or an after-school program. The researcher will use focus group interviews from staff members to access the challenges and the strengths of distributing Dreamer's assistance to an after-school environment with African-American males. This factor will involve transferability. (Brock, 2009)

According to Colorado State University (2012), transferability explains the noted particulars in research of a given phenomenon that showcases similarities between two circumstances. The researcher will present an abundance of rich, thick description of the phenomenon under the research study. (Colorado State University, 2012) As stated by Shenton (2004), rich descriptions afford the researcher the opportunity to compare the work of previous research with the emerging themes of their own. (Shenton, 2004)

3.1.4.2. Dependability

Trochim (2006) defines dependability as an explanation of ever-changing data that continually occurs in research studies. Dependability gives details of changes in an environment and its influence on the method or style taken to perform the research. (Trochim, 2006) For this study, the issue of dependability could arise when there are dissimilarities between the regular school setting and situations involving the after-school program. The assistance provided by Dreamer's Urban Learning Center would be adapted to fit the requirements of the program and the after-school participants. The researcher will address the issue of dependability with the use of overlapping methods. Examples of these methods are the individual interview and the focus group. A comprehensive coverage of the proper practices would allow for repeated research in future studies (Shenton, 2004).

3.1.4.3. Conformability

As indicated by Trochim (2010), conformability is defined as the level to which data results are validated or proved by others. Furthermore, conformability substantiates the data and analysis by making decisions about potential bias. The method of triangulation will provide data concerning the structure and teaching of the curriculum by staff and its absorption by the participants of the study. (Trochim, 2010)

In qualitative research, there are procedures to make certain that the findings of the study are the result of the perception and experiences of the participants, rather than research bias (Shenton, 2004). The researcher will place emphasis on conformability by using triangulation and audit trailing. As stated by Gay et al. (2009) and Shenton (2004), any observer or fellow researcher should be able to execute the audit trail to follow the directional flow of research by the procedures illustrated and decisions taken. (Gay et al. 2009; Shenton, 2004)

3.1.4.4. Credibility

In qualitative research, participants' perspectives establish the credibility, believability and worth of the results from a study (Trochim, 2010). An event, a phenomena or understanding of a circumstance is depicted through the eyes of the participants. As noted by Trochim (2010), only the research participants can validly form an opinion, determine the outcome and provide credibility to results. Credibility is a key issue because it can affect the accurate coding of themes. Examples of factors that may obscure findings are:

The discontinuation of a subject participating in the activities of the after-school program

Obstacles due to program design, introduction of new staff members, and a change in the delivery of curriculum. (Salkind, 2010)

Shenton (2004) acknowledged four prominent ways to increase the issue of credibility throughout the research study. To successfully assure credibility, Shenton (2004) list the measures of member-checking, triangulation, providing rich thick descriptions, and examinations of previous research findings. The researcher will find the measures helpful in solidifying the credibility of the study.

3.2. Secondary Data

Secondary data can be defined as the data that has already been collected and published by the professionals other than the researcher. For the research under consideration the researcher would use previous researches in order to delve into the issue in a better manner. The researcher will collect secondary data from peer reviewed researches, published books, e-books, online journals, published journals and government publications etcetera. (Daas & Arends-Toth, 2012)

3.2.1. Selection of Keywords

The appropriate and effective selection of keywords plays an important role in enabling the researcher to have an access to valid and reliable data. While selecting the keywords, the researcher ensured that these keywords had a positive and strong relationship with the topic of the research. (Bryman & Bell, 2011) The keywords selected for the purpose of this research included the following: 'perspectives of community-based program administrators regarding the necessary characteristics of an after-school program for supporting male mentorship'; 'experience of African-American male student in community based after-school program', 'behavioral trends of African-American students in community based after-school program' etcetera.

3.2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The research adapted an inclusion exclusion criteria, in order to ensure that the sources used for data collection provided the researcher with appropriate and reliable data. The two basic components of the inclusion and exclusion criteria are discussed below:

3.2.2.1. Relevance and Validity

The researcher ensured that the sources used provided the researcher with data that was relevant to the topic of the research and was valid in nature. In order to ensure the relevance of the data, the content was scrutinized and it was established that it had a strong relationship with the topic of research. The validity of the research was ensured by the date on which the source was published. The sources that were published in the time period ranging between 1990 and 2014 were included in the research. The sources that did not fulfill the above mentioned criteria were not included in the research. (Murthy & Bhojanna, 2008)

3.2.2.2. Authenticity

Only the sources that came from authentic and reliable publishers were included in the research. The publisher information of the sources was examined closely. The sources that did not provide appropriate and detailed information about their publishers were not included in the research. (Coldwell & Herbst, 2004)

4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1. Overview

During the process of data analysis, the researcher gives sense to the collected data by discovering the emergence of patterns and themes (Gay et al., 2009). The qualitative process is based on induction. The researcher will commence with an immense array of data and reposition to construct the data into minute, but critical and manageable fields. Offering significance to data without misapprehensions allows the researcher to draw systematically from those similar themes. (Runeson & Host et al., 2012) Stake's (1995) principles of analysis and interpretation describe four ways of clarifying data: categorical aggression, direct interpretation, patterns and correspondence, and naturalistic generalizations. The researcher will use the procedure of correspondence and patterns to delve into and achieve the meaning of rich collected data. (Stake, 1995)

The researcher will find common themes while building a comprehensive account of the case study. During thematic analysis, the researcher will use the strategies of sketching (making margin notes), memoing, and the converging of similar themes (Creswell, 2009). An inherent inspection of the data will allow categories and themes to emerge for generating a conceptual framework (Creswell, 2009).

The researcher will dedicate considerable time to coding text and forming themes from the data. By utilizing the process of mapping causes and effects, the researcher will develop visual imageries of the informal associations that rise from the qualitative data (Creswell, 2009). Data will be amassed into a narrative and organized in the form of charts, graphs and concept mapping. The researcher will have the opportunity to communicate findings with colleagues and other members of academia, an essential function of qualitative research. (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005)

4.2. Role of the researcher

During the initial stages of research development, the researcher attempts to ascertain a concern or enlighten a phenomenon for an anticipated study. The researcher composes research questions and constructs sub-questions that direct the study. The option rests with the researcher as to the method needed for data collection (observations, interviews, documents, artifacts, etc.) Data collection is a process that involves the researcher from the moment of conception, throughout the midpoint, and after the evaluation of results (Newman, 2003).

For the qualitative study, The experiences of African-American males aged (11-13) and their association with a community-based after-school program in an urban setting in Georgia, the researcher is a key component for the successful implementation of the research. The researcher is essential to the process of evaluation. This is because in that process he will be responsible for the different roles involved in the process. The major responsibilities of the researcher are:

Obtaining access to participants

Gaining approval from IRB

Analyzing data

And communicating findings from the study.

In addition, the researcher will hold tremendous insight into the strengths and weakness of the case study (Posavak & Carey, 2010). The researcher will clarify the kind of measurement used during focus group interviews. To prevent biases, the researcher will employ such reflective practices as debrief sessions or journaling. Last, the researcher holds the responsibility to disclose their predispositions, beliefs and values, regarding the experience or phenomenon entailed in the research study.

4.3. Role of participant

In the research process, participants are great contributors (Merriam, 2009). Participants aid by identifying issues during the research, as they express their opinion and perceptions in relation to the issue under consideration (Garaway, 2004).

The researcher in a qualitative case study takes on one of four primary positions:

Complete participant

Participant as observer

Observer as participant

Complete observer (Merriam, 2009).

The role of participants is to provide substantial and orderly feedback regarding their individual thoughts and preferences on issues pertaining to the focus of the study (Krueger & Casey, 2009). The researcher will explore the experiences of the African-American male students regarding the after-school program of the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center through the use of group interviews, observations, and written documents (journaling), which will be held with the administrators of the community-based program.

4.4. Theoretical Perspective

As stated by Shelmerdine (n.d.), a relationship exists between paradigm and research practice. This relationship involves ontology, epistemology, and methodology. Ontology is the study of the establishment of the nature of reality. Epistemology deals with the association between knowledge and the construction of reality (Shelmerdine, n.d.).

In other words, it can be said that there is a special relationship between the researcher and the study. Methodology is the course researchers pursue while they seek what they want to know (Shelmerdine, n.d.). The three basic paradigms of social science are Constructionism, Interpretivism, and Positivism (Shelmerdine, n.d.). While preparing the qualitative project, the researcher will use the Constructionism paradigm for investigating the experiences and the meaning of the participants of the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center.

4.5. Procedure for Data Analysis and Interpretation

As stated by Gay, et al. (2009), it is a tedious process to analyze and interpret data. The researcher has the task to thoroughly organize data. By utilizing the process of induction, the researcher reduces a huge assortment of data sets to a workable group of data sets (Gay, et al., 2009). The researcher finds meaning in the data by identifying emerging patterns and themes. Usually, data analysis entails a series of actions: reading/memoing, describing, classifying, and interpreting. As the researcher internalizes data on a repeated basis, it is important to note that the sequence of these actions changes. (Carlin & Louis, 1997)

4.5.1. Memoing

Throughout the course of data collection, the researcher can easily forget information or experiences amassed from their field work. The process is made simpler through memoing. Groenewald (2010) described memoing as the action of taking reflective notes about data that the researcher is expected to study. Memos aid the researcher by bringing clarity to some of the hypothesis regarding categories or the connection between topics (Gay et al., 2009; Groenewald, 2010).

Memoing will serve a vital function in the data collection process for the researcher. The triangulation of interviews, observations, and focus interviews will be used in the study of African-American males and the experience of an after-school program. The use of memos would support the researcher in conceptualizing and constructing an analytical space from the raw material. The researcher will use memos as a tool to record the outflow of observation notes, to bring together an effective level of insight, and to acknowledge the experiences of the participants. The early phase of analysis will begin with the memoing process. (Rasli, 2006)

4.5.2. Describing

In qualitative research, describing includes the development of comprehensive and meticulous picture of the setting, the participants and the phenomenon of the research study (Gay, et al., 2009). Descriptions are essential to translating the rich intricacies of data. Describing gives the reader an illustrated picture of the setting and the event from which the data was collected (Creswell, 2007; Gay et al., 2009).

Descriptivism affords the researcher opportunities to convey an understanding of the context of the collected data. Context gives rise to meaning. Without a massive descriptive plan, the researcher could overlook valuable information concerning actions, scenery and the participants' experiences (Gay et al., 2009).

In a qualitative study, the researcher put forward the actual views and perspectives of research participants (Creswell, 2007). The study of African-American males and the experiences of an after-school program will involve administrators from the Dreamer's Urban Learning Center (pseudonym). The program directors are important because they describe their experiences about the program and the leadership qualities of the mentors provided to the young African-American males. Staff members would describe their experiences regarding the curriculum and the quality of care given to students. The researcher would be aware of changes that would occur in relations and social interactions over time during the extent of the research study. This action will allow the researcher to attain various perspectives of the research participants efficiently.

4.5.3. Analyzing data

While analyzing data, the researcher looks for emerging themes. This would involve the patterns detected throughout the data collection that continued to recur. Gay, et al. (2009) defined coding as categorically marking labels upon data notes with the objective of assigning meaning to text. The units of text would include words, quotations, sentences, and paragraphs. (Dul & Hak, 2008)

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Nellie Mae Foundation. (2003). Afterschool programs and educational success: critical success [Brochure]. New England: Author
Nelson, L.D. (1998). Herbert Blumer’s Symbolic Interactionism. University of Colorado at Boulder, Retrieved from www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/Nelson
Neuman, W.L. (2003). Social research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov ↗
Pastchal-Temple, A.S. (2012). The effect of regular participation in an after-school program on student achievement, attendance, and behavior (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 3505526)
Posavac, E.J., & Carey, R.G. (2010). Program evaluation: Methods and case studies (7th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Rasli, A. (2006). Data analysis and interpretation. Skudai, Johor: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Rowley, L. L., & Bowman, P. J. (2009). Risk, protection, and achievement disparities among African American males: Cross-generation theory, research, and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(3), 305-320,362-363.
Runeson, P., Höst, M., Rainer, A. & Regnell, B. (2012). Data Analysis and Interpretation. Case Study Research In Software Engineering: Guidelines And Examples, pp. 61--76.
Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design. Los Angeles [etc.]: SAGE Reference.
Sanders, J. C. (2011). A study of the effectiveness of after-school and before-school programs with low-performing middle school students. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 893845321).
Scott-Little, C., Hamann, M., & Jurs, S. (2002). Meta-evaluation of methodologies and narrative synthesis of findings. American Journal of Evaluation, 23(4), 387-419.
Shenton, A.K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Division of Information and Communication, Northumbria University. Newcastle, UK: IOS Press.
Stuberfield, T.H. (2008). Experiences of principals leading schools noted for African American male achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database (UMI No. 3415951)
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stanford, M. E. (2009). How black and white urban school teachers view African American males (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 305079390).
Taylor-Powell, E. & Renner, M. (2003). Analyzing qualitative data. Retrieved from http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/g3658-12.pdf ↗
Taylor, A. C. (2005). Improving the academic achievement of African American males: A case study of African American male perceptions of attempted instructional strategies (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 305425123).
Tillman, L.C. (2002). Cultural Sensitive Research Approaches: An African American Perspective. Educational Researcher, Vol. 31, No. 9, pp. 3-12
Tillman, L.C. (2006). Researching and writing from an African-American perspective: Reflective notes on three research studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(3), 265-287.
Trochim, W.M.K. (2010). Qualitative validity. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php ↗
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2010). National household education survey. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2011). National household education survey. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
Venable, S. (2009). School discipline issues of African-American males. Southeastern Teacher Education Journal, 2(3), 57-64.
Welman, J. C. & Kruger, S. J. (2001). Research methodology for the business and administrative sciences. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Welsh, E. (2002). Dealing with Data: Using NVivo in the Qualitative Data Analysis Process. 3 (2), pp. 1-6.
West-Olatunji, C.A. & Baker, J.C. (2006). African American Adolescent males: Giving voice to their educational experiences. Multicultural Perspectives, 8(4), 3-9.
Williams, P. (2008). An ethnographic study of successful African American male learners in middle school. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3340178).
Woodland, M. C. (2008). Whatcha doin’ after school?: A review of the literature on the
influence of after-school programs on young black males. Urban Education, 43,
537-560.
Woodside, A. G. & Wilson, E. J. (2003). Case study research methods for theory building. Journal Of Business & Industrial Marketing, 18 (6/7), pp. 493--508.

Afterschool Alliance (2004). After-School alert: Poll report. Retrieved from http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/documents/polling/poll_jan_2004.pdf ↗
Apsler, R. (2009). After-school programs for adolescents: A review of evaluation research. Adolescence, 44(173), 1-19.
Baker, J., Rieg, S., & Clendaniel, T. (2006). An investigation of an after school math tutoring program: University tutors+ elementary students = A successful partnership. Education, 127(2), 287-293.
Baker, P. (2005). The impact of cultural biases on African American students\' education: A review of research literature regarding race-based schooling. Education and Urban Society, 37(3), 243-256.
Behi, R. & Nolan, M. (1995). Ethical issues in research. British Journal Of Nursing, 4 (12), pp. 712--716.
Bissell, J. (2002). Evaluation of California’s after school learning and safe neighborhoods partnership program: 1999-2001. Department of Education, University of California, Irvine.
Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Brock, L. M. (2009). An investigation of after school supports: An after-school program and its impact on African American males aged 5--13 (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database . (UMI No. 855005961)
Brus, D. & De Gruijter, J. (1997). Random sampling or geostatistical modelling? Choosing between design-based and model-based sampling strategies for soil (with discussion). Geoderma, 80 (1), pp. 1--44.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011). Business research methods. Cambridge: Oxford University Press.
Caldwell, R. M., Cleveland, H. H. & Wiebe, R. P. (2006). The influence of future certainty and contextual factors on delinquent behavior and school adjustment among African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 591-602
Carlin, B. P. & Louis, T. A. (1997). Bayes and empirical Bayes methods for data analysis. Statistics And Computing, 7 (2), pp. 153--154.
Cavanagh, S. (2001). Districts face painful cuts as schools year begins. Education Week, 31(1), 2.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2009). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov ↗
Chung, A. (2000). Working for children and families: Safe and smart after-school programs. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Clover, V. T. & Balsley, H. L. (1979). Business research methods. Columbus, Ohio: Grid Pub.
Coldwell, D. & Herbst, F. J. (2004). Business research. New York: Juta Academic.
Colorado State University. (2012). Transferability. Retrieved from, http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/gentrans/com2c1.cfm ↗
Cooper, D. R. & Schindler, P. S. (2006). Business research methods. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill Irwin.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Daas, P. & Arends-Tóth, J. (2012). Secondary data collection. Methodology Series, 2012 (06), pp. 4-32.
Davis, J.E. (2003). Early schooling and the achievement of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 515-537.
Davis-Allen, Y. R. (2008). Impacts of an after-school program on student achievement for at-risk children (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 304832146).
Day-Vines, N.L. & Day-Hairston, B. O. (2005). Culturally congruent strategies for addressing the behavioral needs of urban, African-American male adolescents. Professional Schooling Counseling, 8(3), 236-243.
Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Dul, J. & Hak, T. (2008). Case study methodology in business research. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann/Elsevier.
Fashola, O. (2009). Developing the talents of African American male students during nonschool hours. In F. Olatokunbo (Ed), Educating African American males: Voices from the field, Thousand Oak, CA: Corwin Press.
Fleming, N. (2011). After-school program offers enrichment to at-risk pupils. Education Week, 30(23), 10.
Fox, J.A. (1999). Juvenile violence in the after school hours: Release of the 1996 data for eight states. Retrieved from http://www.cj.neu.edu/fox/timeofday96web.htm ↗
Garaway, G. (2004). Participatory evaluation. In K. deMarrais & S.D. Lapan (Eds.), Foundations for research: Methods of inquiry in education and the social sciences (pp. 249-266). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gay, L.R., Mills, G.E., & Airasian, P. (2009). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Gibbs, J. T. (1988). Young, black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company.
Groenewald, T. (2008). Memos and memoing. In Given, L.M. (Ed). The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods, 2, 505-506. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Halpern, R. (2002). A different kind of child development institution: The history of after-school programs for low-income children. Teacher College Record, 104(2), 178-211.
Hicks, H.S., III (2001). A study of factors that influence academic success of black American middle school males. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database.
Hynes K., & Sanders F. (2011). Diverging experiences during out-of-school time: The race gap in exposure to after-school programs. The Journal of Negro Education, 80(4), 464-476.
Jonathan Goldner, Tracy L Peters, Maryse H Richards, & Steven Pearce. (2011). Exposure to community violence and protective and risky contexts among low income urban African American adolescents: A prospective study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(2), 174-186.
Jordan, J. L., & Anil, B. (2009). Race, gender, school discipline, and human capital effects. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 41(2), 419-429.
Klein, A. (2010). House panel queries Duncan on ESEA. Education Week, 29(24), 19-25.
Krueger, R.A., & Casey, M.A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kupchik, A. & Ellis, N. (2008). School discipline and security: Fair for all students? Youth and Society, 39(4), 549-574.
Lamb, M. L. (2010). Motivational factors influencing the academic achievement of adolescent African American males. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 502235319).
Lee, J. & Lee, K. (2009). Facilitating Dynamics of Focus Group-Interviews in East Asia: Evidence and Tools by Cross-Cultural Study. International Journal Of Design, 3 (1).
Mcisaac, M. L., Goeree, R. & Brophy, J. M. (2007). Primary data collection in health technology assessment. International Journal Of Technology Assessment In Health Care, 23 (01), pp. 24--29.
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Revised and expanded from Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Miskowicz, M. (2007). Asymptotic effectiveness of the event-based sampling according to the integral criterion. Sensors, 7 (1), pp. 16--37.
Monroe, C.R. (2005). Why are “bad boys” always Black? Clearing House, 79(1), 45-50.
Monroe, C.R. (2006). African American boys and the discipline gap: Balancing educators’ uneven hand. Pi Lambda Theta. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ750615).
Moore, E.W. (2010). Decreasing discipline for black males. The School Administrator, 64(10), Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/publications/content.cfin?ItemNumber=9480 ↗
Morgan, D.L., & Krueger, R.A. (1998). The focus group kit. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Murthy, S. N. & Bhojanna, U. (2008). Business research methods. New Delhi: Excel Books.
National Institute on Out of School Time and Forum for Youth Investment. (2003). How after school programs can most effectively promote positive youth development as support to academic achievement. Retrieved from http://www.nmforumforyouth.org/documents/ostn/ASandPYD.pdf ↗
Nellie Mae Foundation. (2003). Afterschool programs and educational success: critical success [Brochure]. New England: Author
Nelson, L.D. (1998). Herbert Blumer’s Symbolic Interactionism. University of Colorado at Boulder, Retrieved from www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/Nelson
Neuman, W.L. (2003). Social research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov ↗
Pastchal-Temple, A.S. (2012). The effect of regular participation in an after-school program on student achievement, attendance, and behavior (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 3505526)
Posavac, E.J., & Carey, R.G. (2010). Program evaluation: Methods and case studies (7th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Rasli, A. (2006). Data analysis and interpretation. Skudai, Johor: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Rowley, L. L., & Bowman, P. J. (2009). Risk, protection, and achievement disparities among African American males: Cross-generation theory, research, and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(3), 305-320,362-363.
Runeson, P., Höst, M., Rainer, A. & Regnell, B. (2012). Data Analysis and Interpretation. Case Study Research In Software Engineering: Guidelines And Examples, pp. 61--76.
Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design. Los Angeles [etc.]: SAGE Reference.
Sanders, J. C. (2011). A study of the effectiveness of after-school and before-school programs with low-performing middle school students. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 893845321).
Scott-Little, C., Hamann, M., & Jurs, S. (2002). Meta-evaluation of methodologies and narrative synthesis of findings. American Journal of Evaluation, 23(4), 387-419.
Shenton, A.K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Division of Information and Communication, Northumbria University. Newcastle, UK: IOS Press.
Stuberfield, T.H. (2008). Experiences of principals leading schools noted for African American male achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database (UMI No. 3415951)
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stanford, M. E. (2009). How black and white urban school teachers view African American males (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 305079390).
Taylor-Powell, E. & Renner, M. (2003). Analyzing qualitative data. Retrieved from http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/g3658-12.pdf ↗
Taylor, A. C. (2005). Improving the academic achievement of African American males: A case study of African American male perceptions of attempted instructional strategies (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 305425123).
Tillman, L.C. (2002). Cultural Sensitive Research Approaches: An African American Perspective. Educational Researcher, Vol. 31, No. 9, pp. 3-12
Tillman, L.C. (2006). Researching and writing from an African-American perspective: Reflective notes on three research studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(3), 265-287.
Trochim, W.M.K. (2010). Qualitative validity. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php ↗
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2010). National household education survey. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2011). National household education survey. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
Venable, S. (2009). School discipline issues of African-American males. Southeastern Teacher Education Journal, 2(3), 57-64.
Welman, J. C. & Kruger, S. J. (2001). Research methodology for the business and administrative sciences. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Welsh, E. (2002). Dealing with Data: Using NVivo in the Qualitative Data Analysis Process. 3 (2), pp. 1-6.
West-Olatunji, C.A. & Baker, J.C. (2006). African American Adolescent males: Giving voice to their educational experiences. Multicultural Perspectives, 8(4), 3-9.
Williams, P. (2008). An ethnographic study of successful African American male learners in middle school. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3340178).
Woodland, M. C. (2008). Whatcha doin’ after school?: A review of the literature on the
influence of after-school programs on young black males. Urban Education, 43,
537-560.
Woodside, A. G. & Wilson, E. J. (2003). Case study research methods for theory building. Journal Of Business & Industrial Marketing, 18 (6/7), pp. 493--508.

Afterschool Alliance (2004). After-School alert: Poll report. Retrieved from http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/documents/polling/poll_jan_2004.pdf ↗
Apsler, R. (2009). After-school programs for adolescents: A review of evaluation research. Adolescence, 44(173), 1-19.
Baker, J., Rieg, S., & Clendaniel, T. (2006). An investigation of an after school math tutoring program: University tutors+ elementary students = A successful partnership. Education, 127(2), 287-293.
Baker, P. (2005). The impact of cultural biases on African American students\' education: A review of research literature regarding race-based schooling. Education and Urban Society, 37(3), 243-256.
Behi, R. & Nolan, M. (1995). Ethical issues in research. British Journal Of Nursing, 4 (12), pp. 712--716.
Bissell, J. (2002). Evaluation of California’s after school learning and safe neighborhoods partnership program: 1999-2001. Department of Education, University of California, Irvine.
Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Brock, L. M. (2009). An investigation of after school supports: An after-school program and its impact on African American males aged 5--13 (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database . (UMI No. 855005961)
Brus, D. & De Gruijter, J. (1997). Random sampling or geostatistical modelling? Choosing between design-based and model-based sampling strategies for soil (with discussion). Geoderma, 80 (1), pp. 1--44.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011). Business research methods. Cambridge: Oxford University Press.
Caldwell, R. M., Cleveland, H. H. & Wiebe, R. P. (2006). The influence of future certainty and contextual factors on delinquent behavior and school adjustment among African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 591-602
Carlin, B. P. & Louis, T. A. (1997). Bayes and empirical Bayes methods for data analysis. Statistics And Computing, 7 (2), pp. 153--154.
Cavanagh, S. (2001). Districts face painful cuts as schools year begins. Education Week, 31(1), 2.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2009). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov ↗
Chung, A. (2000). Working for children and families: Safe and smart after-school programs. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Clover, V. T. & Balsley, H. L. (1979). Business research methods. Columbus, Ohio: Grid Pub.
Coldwell, D. & Herbst, F. J. (2004). Business research. New York: Juta Academic.
Colorado State University. (2012). Transferability. Retrieved from, http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/gentrans/com2c1.cfm ↗
Cooper, D. R. & Schindler, P. S. (2006). Business research methods. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill Irwin.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Daas, P. & Arends-Tóth, J. (2012). Secondary data collection. Methodology Series, 2012 (06), pp. 4-32.
Davis, J.E. (2003). Early schooling and the achievement of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 515-537.
Davis-Allen, Y. R. (2008). Impacts of an after-school program on student achievement for at-risk children (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 304832146).
Day-Vines, N.L. & Day-Hairston, B. O. (2005). Culturally congruent strategies for addressing the behavioral needs of urban, African-American male adolescents. Professional Schooling Counseling, 8(3), 236-243.
Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Dul, J. & Hak, T. (2008). Case study methodology in business research. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann/Elsevier.
Fashola, O. (2009). Developing the talents of African American male students during nonschool hours. In F. Olatokunbo (Ed), Educating African American males: Voices from the field, Thousand Oak, CA: Corwin Press.
Fleming, N. (2011). After-school program offers enrichment to at-risk pupils. Education Week, 30(23), 10.
Fox, J.A. (1999). Juvenile violence in the after school hours: Release of the 1996 data for eight states. Retrieved from http://www.cj.neu.edu/fox/timeofday96web.htm ↗
Garaway, G. (2004). Participatory evaluation. In K. deMarrais & S.D. Lapan (Eds.), Foundations for research: Methods of inquiry in education and the social sciences (pp. 249-266). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gay, L.R., Mills, G.E., & Airasian, P. (2009). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Gibbs, J. T. (1988). Young, black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company.
Groenewald, T. (2008). Memos and memoing. In Given, L.M. (Ed). The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods, 2, 505-506. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Halpern, R. (2002). A different kind of child development institution: The history of after-school programs for low-income children. Teacher College Record, 104(2), 178-211.
Hicks, H.S., III (2001). A study of factors that influence academic success of black American middle school males. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database.
Hynes K., & Sanders F. (2011). Diverging experiences during out-of-school time: The race gap in exposure to after-school programs. The Journal of Negro Education, 80(4), 464-476.
Jonathan Goldner, Tracy L Peters, Maryse H Richards, & Steven Pearce. (2011). Exposure to community violence and protective and risky contexts among low income urban African American adolescents: A prospective study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(2), 174-186.
Jordan, J. L., & Anil, B. (2009). Race, gender, school discipline, and human capital effects. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 41(2), 419-429.
Klein, A. (2010). House panel queries Duncan on ESEA. Education Week, 29(24), 19-25.
Krueger, R.A., & Casey, M.A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kupchik, A. & Ellis, N. (2008). School discipline and security: Fair for all students? Youth and Society, 39(4), 549-574.
Lamb, M. L. (2010). Motivational factors influencing the academic achievement of adolescent African American males. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 502235319).
Lee, J. & Lee, K. (2009). Facilitating Dynamics of Focus Group-Interviews in East Asia: Evidence and Tools by Cross-Cultural Study. International Journal Of Design, 3 (1).
Mcisaac, M. L., Goeree, R. & Brophy, J. M. (2007). Primary data collection in health technology assessment. International Journal Of Technology Assessment In Health Care, 23 (01), pp. 24--29.
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Revised and expanded from Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Miskowicz, M. (2007). Asymptotic effectiveness of the event-based sampling according to the integral criterion. Sensors, 7 (1), pp. 16--37.
Monroe, C.R. (2005). Why are “bad boys” always Black? Clearing House, 79(1), 45-50.
Monroe, C.R. (2006). African American boys and the discipline gap: Balancing educators’ uneven hand. Pi Lambda Theta. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ750615).
Moore, E.W. (2010). Decreasing discipline for black males. The School Administrator, 64(10), Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/publications/content.cfin?ItemNumber=9480 ↗
Morgan, D.L., & Krueger, R.A. (1998). The focus group kit. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Murthy, S. N. & Bhojanna, U. (2008). Business research methods. New Delhi: Excel Books.
National Institute on Out of School Time and Forum for Youth Investment. (2003). How after school programs can most effectively promote positive youth development as support to academic achievement. Retrieved from http://www.nmforumforyouth.org/documents/ostn/ASandPYD.pdf ↗
Nellie Mae Foundation. (2003). Afterschool programs and educational success: critical success [Brochure]. New England: Author
Nelson, L.D. (1998). Herbert Blumer’s Symbolic Interactionism. University of Colorado at Boulder, Retrieved from www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/Nelson
Neuman, W.L. (2003). Social research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov ↗
Pastchal-Temple, A.S. (2012). The effect of regular participation in an after-school program on student achievement, attendance, and behavior (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 3505526)
Posavac, E.J., & Carey, R.G. (2010). Program evaluation: Methods and case studies (7th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Rasli, A. (2006). Data analysis and interpretation. Skudai, Johor: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Rowley, L. L., & Bowman, P. J. (2009). Risk, protection, and achievement disparities among African American males: Cross-generation theory, research, and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(3), 305-320,362-363.
Runeson, P., Höst, M., Rainer, A. & Regnell, B. (2012). Data Analysis and Interpretation. Case Study Research In Software Engineering: Guidelines And Examples, pp. 61--76.
Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design. Los Angeles [etc.]: SAGE Reference.
Sanders, J. C. (2011). A study of the effectiveness of after-school and before-school programs with low-performing middle school students. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 893845321).
Scott-Little, C., Hamann, M., & Jurs, S. (2002). Meta-evaluation of methodologies and narrative synthesis of findings. American Journal of Evaluation, 23(4), 387-419.
Shenton, A.K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Division of Information and Communication, Northumbria University. Newcastle, UK: IOS Press.
Stuberfield, T.H. (2008). Experiences of principals leading schools noted for African American male achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database (UMI No. 3415951)
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stanford, M. E. (2009). How black and white urban school teachers view African American males (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 305079390).
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