Comparison of American and Japanese early childhood education

American and Japanese Early Childhood Education

Comparison

Public education provides for many things in one's life, such as improved social standing, an educated electorate, and a greater opportunity for citizens of a democratic society. Education is a marker for career achievement and serves as an indicator of social equality or inequality. In most areas, education is seen as a prerequisite for professional advancement and related economic levels. Lack of education commonly receives blame for such social problems as inequities in employment, social aspirations, and perception. Equalizing education, therefore, has many dimensions that go beyond just the system of education.

Originally, most education systems centralized as a conscious effort to provide more education to more people and to improve the quality of that education. The expansion of education through the 19th and 20th centuries occurred simultaneously with the development of strong governments, allowing them to seek education standardization. In most countries, the governments ran the schools while others monitored schools run by non-governmental groups or private individuals. In all cases, however, the government assumed authority over the system.

Centralization of the governance of education went hand in hand with population growth and urbanization. Further, nationalism and economic competition between nation-states increased the importance of educating citizens. Financing education was a function of the government via taxes at the national, state, and local levels. Countries that did not finance education lagged behind in enrolment. Public provision and government-controlled finance made education of reasonable quality available to more children.

In pursuit of improved quality and higher efficiency through standardization, most education systems became more centralized. Fewer decision-making bodies made more decisions over more domains of education. What has been achieved today is a large measure of standardization, made possible through centralization of the governance of education.

Decentralization occurs for a multitude of reasons: increasing efficiency in management and governance, dealing with teacher deployment, teacher payment, purchase and distribution of equipment and materials, maintenance of facilities, and the desire for people to be consulted and directly involved in decision making. It also serves as a means of strengthening accountability. Other reasons include government desire to weaken the power of teachers' unions and always the search for new resources. Decentralization allows local levels to have control of obtaining resources through taxes and community involvement - even when the state continues to finance certain levels of education.

Decentralization in education deals with decisions regarding public schooling, including who should pay for it and who gets to make the decisions. Facing pressure to reduce public spending and increase efficiency in the resources available, most countries have decentralized their systems - even in countries that have centralized systems of government.

In order to determine what should be done with the school systems in many countries, policy typologies were used. Policy typologies are by far one of the most significant and durable of the analytical frameworks within the field of political science. Originally, they were conceived by Lowi almost 40 years ago, and numerous variants of different policy typologies help to provide the theoretical structure for a very broad range of scholarship. The approach of typology, however, has some very well-known flaws. Typologies draw on their theoretical strength based on the idea that all public policies can be classified systematically and that there are distinct and very predictable patterns that are seen in political behavior.

The main difficulty for typologies, however, is the establishing of some means to be able to objectively assign the policies into specific and conceptually distinct categories. Once it was considered to be a natural precursor to a complete and general understanding of politics, but now the theoretical promise of typologies has been continually frustrated by an inability to construct a system that is valid and reliable when it comes to classification. It can be argued that a potential solution to the problem of classification therefore lies in an empirical (as opposed to a conceptual) construction of the policy categories.

The political debates of the 70s and 80s resulted in the disintegration of the western "Keynesian consensus" that had favored strong centralized governments, the outcome of which was a rethinking of the role of the central government. Economic and financial globalization also played a role. Supranational organizations reduced national sovereignty, and a shift towards market-based decision-making strengthened local groups. Together this made it more difficult for governments to garner funds for social programs. Decentralization advocates stressed the role of privatization and encouraged non-governmental organizations, in essence creating a new political-economic paradigm.

Coinciding with world events, enrolments in public education systems around the world doubled and tripled. The increases strained the ability for centralized bureaucracies to maintain quality, subsequently resulting in public pressure to shift the decision-making to local groups.

The emergence of new information technology also made it easier to achieve high levels of control over systems with decentralized management systems. A new educational paradigm developed emphasizing outputs rather than inputs, further strengthening local capacity for decision-making.

What is Early Childhood Education?

The concept of "early childhood" spans the ages from birth to age 6. Most of the early childhood education, however, begins at age 3. The education that is given to children during this time period is somewhat holistic in that it looks at physical, mental, emotional, and social education, at least if it is performed correctly, which it sometimes is not, in this country and in others.

Although the concept of early childhood education does not actually need to occur without the parent or the child's primary caregiver, the term is often used to denote an education that is given by someone who is not the parent or main caregiver. Research that has been done in the field of early childhood education as well as researchers into that field often see the parents as being an integral part of the process of educating very young children. This type of education also takes on many different forms which can greatly depend on both theoretical and educational beliefs that are held by the educator and/or the parent.

There are many other terms that are used interchangeably with "early childhood education." These are "early childhood learning," "early care," and "early education." It depends on the feelings and beliefs of the parent and the educator. One of the most important things that an educator can do for the child is to ensure that the parent is really involved in the education process, as this will allow the child to achieve the most potential. Children learn very quickly at young ages.

There are several different developmental domains for children, and they all relate to one another:

Physical development.

Perception and sensory development.

Communication and language development.

Cognitive development.

Emotional Development.

Social Development.

Recent studies into the issue of infant brain development indicate that most of an individual's neurons form when they are between birth and six years of age. If a child does not get sufficient nurturing, nutrition, interaction, and stimuli throughout that very crucial period of growth, that child may have a developmental deficiency that will hamper the child's success in preschool and kindergarten, and often beyond that.

Some of the worst-case scenarios, like those that are seen in both Russian and Romanian orphanages, show how a lack of social interaction and the development of attachments can affect the development of a child. Children have to receive both attention and affection from caregivers in order to develop in a healthy and strong manner.

There are a wide array of educational philosophies that circulate throughout the field of early childhood education. There are professionals that adhere to the behaviorist theory that was largely developed by B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, and John B. Watson. Others are interested in theories that come from Maria Montessori and Jacques Rousseau. Still others are concerned with stage theories that came from the works of Erik Erikson and Sigmund Freud. Some of the theories from these individuals will be discussed here as a background to early childhood education.

B.F. Skinner held a basic opinion about personality theories. The main idea of his theory was that personality does not come completely from inside, as some think, or completely from outside forces, as others think. Rather, he believed personality to be a combination of these things. He hypothesized that who someone is, the things that they face in life, and how they react to those things all add up to create the true personality of an individual.

He was also very interested in the emotions and beliefs of the individual and how they affected the actual things that a person did. How people learn from what they see around them and how they then take that learning and utilize it was something that Skinner thought very important and understanding personality. He realized that personality is made up of many different things, and that no one thing can be definitely said to be the only thing that affects someone's personality. In this way, Skinner was very much interested in operant conditioning and existentialism.

Behavior modification therapy is the most obvious therapy that takes advantage of operant conditioning principles. Generally, it works by either giving a reward for an encouraged behavior, or taking something away for an undesirable behavior. By doing this, the patient often increases the good behaviors and uses the bad behaviors less often, although this conditioning may take awhile if the rewards and removals are not sufficient to entice the patient into doing better.

Existentialism is important to discuss here as well, and is often seen to be a very drastic way to examine human behavior. There are two types of existentialism. One is Atheistic Existentialism, and the other is Theistic Existentialism.

Atheistic existentialism has its basis in the statement that the entire cosmos is composed only of matter, and human beings see reality in two forms. Those forms are subjective and objective. People who believe in Atheistic Existentialism do not believe that anyone or anything specific made the world. They do not know whether it is chaotic or structured, whether it is governed by law, or whether it is subject to chance. They see the world merely as existing and do not concern themselves with how it got here, why it is here now, or what will happen to it in the future. This is the most prevalent form of Existentialism today.

They also believe that people make themselves who they are. Naturally, they do not believe in God, and therefore do not feel that He shapes us into what we need to be to survive in this world. According to this belief, a person is what he assumes he is. In other words, if someone believes that they are frightened and timid, they will act that way. If they believe they are brave and bold, they were often do things that are considered brave and bold by either themselves or others. The basic point of this belief system is the theory that people create themselves; they do not rely on some being that allegedly created them. This is the theory of "existence proceeds essence."

The belief that each person is completely free in regards to his or her destiny and his or her nature is also part of this belief system. They see the world as being absurd, and because of this any person who is considered "authentic" must work to create some value in the world. Without individuals working to make something out of the world, there will be nothing left for anyone.

Theistic Existentialism differs from Atheistic Existentialism. In Theistic Existentialism, it is believed that human beings can decide for themselves whether or not God exists. It is acknowledged that this question is very difficult, and it is believed that faith, not reason, should solve this question for everyone. Another belief of this system is that what is personal is valuable. In other words, there is a distinction between the objective and subjective worlds. People must do what they feel they must do, and their concerns over whether God exists must be left for another day. Skinner held many of these beliefs and discussed many others throughout his lifetime.

Sigmund Freud is probably the most popular and well-known psychologist in the field of personality. His work with the id, ego, and superego is still widely used and accepted today, and although some dismiss his beliefs, what he had to say about personality was very powerful. For example, Freud believed that there was both a conscious and an unconscious mind, and that the two are both present in all people. The unconscious mind is the source for much of our personality, because it controls all of the basic human desires that many people don't even realize they have. They are not conscious thoughts, but rather drives and feelings that seem to come 'from nowhere' (Beoree, 1997).

In addition to his work with the conscious and unconscious mind and the id, ego, and superego, Freud advances many other theories about personality, such as why people feel anxiety and what the different kinds of anxious feelings are telling them. He also discussed what he called the 'death instinct' which stated that everyone had an actual unconscious wish to die. He believed that this was true because life itself can be rather exhausting and Freud felt that death brings rest and release from all of the problems faced by life. It is therefore welcomed on an unconscious level, although most people have no actual, conscious wish to die, save those that are actually suicidal (Beoree, 1997).

There are many different perspectives in psychology that are used for educational studies. The first perspective is structuralism. The main goal of structuralism was to talk about the conscious mind and its contents (Davis & Palladino, 2004). Those who studied this wanted to break down the conscious mind into basic elements (Davis & Palladino, 2004). During experiments, the experiences that subjects had were very different, and this raised questions about the mind and whether there were really any common elements of experience (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

The second perspective is functionalism, which came about late in the 1800s (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It looked at the purposes that consciousness had and why the mind does what it does. It had much to do with the idea of 'stream of consciousness' (Davis & Palladino, 2004). How information was used and adapted to the environment was one of the things that those who studied this wanted to see (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

Gestalt psychology created the idea that the whole was not the same as the parts that made up the whole (Davis & Palladino, 2004). This indicated that is was not possible to break down a conscious experience into various elements (Henle, 1975). It made great accomplishments in the area of perception, because it showed that what people see was different than the parts that made up the picture (Henle, 1975).

The behavioral perspective did not focus on what the mind did, but on behaviors that could be observed (Davis & Palladino, 2004). The importance of learning was also emphasized. Pavlov and his dogs belong to this category (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It was believed that the consequences that followed a behavior would cause an inappropriate behavior to change (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

The psychodynamic perspective came next, and this is where Sigmund Freud came into the psychological picture (the Psychodynamic, 2004). This perspective was concerned with unconscious forces and how they affect behaviors (Davis & Palladino, 2004). Freud also studied dreams and believed that these dreams often hid what they were really about from the dreamer (Davis & Palladino, 2004). This perspective also looked at the experiences of early childhood, the effects that they had on later life, and the idea of sexuality as a reason for many behaviors (the Psychodynamic, 2004).

The humanistic perspective was next to come along and it emphasized a person's control over his or her own behavior and the concept of free will (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It gave a view of human nature that was very positive (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It was believed that everyone sees and experiences the world differently and their behavior cannot be understood by studying animals or other human beings (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

Changes within the body were discussed using the physiological perspective, which stated that these bodily changes are what affect behavior (Davis & Palladino, 2004). How the brain and the nervous system work and react to one another is one of the main interests of those that study this perspective (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

The evolutionary perspective dealt with physical structure and behavior, and how these things changed to adapt to the environment (Davis & Palladino, 2004). Darwin was associated with this (What is, 2000). Much of this perspective was based on natural selection and how the fittest individuals are the ones that survive (What is, 2000).

How people think and remember came about with the cognitive perspective (Davis & Palladino, 2004). This looked at how the mind stored things (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It also focused on how memory is processed and how thoughts actually occur (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It was not popular for a long time because there was such a focus on behaviors instead of thought (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

The cultural and diversity perspective is the last of the 10 perspectives of early psychology (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It deals with the differences in cultural, gender, and other issues in not only the subjects but the researchers as well (Davis & Palladino, 2004). It has been largely responsible for the growing number of women and minorities in the field of psychology today (Davis & Palladino, 2004).

Constructivism looks at students that come from all sorts of backgrounds that are normally considered to be lower-income families. These include African-Americans, Latinos, Asian-Americans, Native Americans, and others that do not speak English at home or as their first language. These are the students that seem to have the most trouble in school, especially when it comes to literary assignments. These kinds of studies look at using various ideas of social constructivism to incorporate some of the cultural and literacy issues faced by these students into their learning experience. By doing this, they are helped to understand their culture and how it differs from and relates to American culture.

These studies also look at incorporating these students' first language into their learning experience so that things that are discussed in the classroom make more sense to them. This gives them a chance to catch up to their peers that have been speaking English all of their lives. During the discussion in these types of articles, authors usually propose theoretical models that could assist students and teachers with these issues, and talk of how language and culture can be placed into the classroom in such a way that it will not interfere with the learning styles of other students, but will still give those that struggle the chance to understand and catch up.

Mathematic principles are the same all over the world, but English is a very difficult language to learn, and many who do not learn it as a first language always struggle with parts of it, such as the peculiar expressions that only Americans use for various things. It makes a great deal of sense to use images, words, and ideas that these struggling students will understand, as long as it does not affect the learning of the English-speaking students in a negative way. This is only one of the ways that constructivism can be used in early childhood education in various countries.

A strong similarity that has been seen in early childhood education both in the United States and in Japan is that positive reinforcement should be the way to teach children of that age. Before one can truly begin to understand what works well in the classroom when it comes to positive reinforcement and student self-discipline, however, one has to understand those that teach these students and what causes them to behave in certain ways. How a teacher was raised can shape his or her perceptions about the children that he or she teaches and can also affect whether he or she believes that positive reinforcement works well in the area of self-discipline. Because this is such a significant issue for so many individuals, it will be discussed first, and in some detail. This information applies to teachers both in the United States and in Japan, as experiences shape people's lives, no matter what country they come from.

Those who are planning on teaching for a career often say that managing a classroom appropriately is one of the major concerns that they have when they examine the various issues of learning to be a teacher (Carter & Doyle, 1996). Management of a classroom involves many issues and a very complex set of teacher behaviors. This is often referred to as the particular teacher's teaching style and is used by these teachers in order to help establish and maintain the various conditions in a classroom that they feel will enable the students that they teach to not only achieve the instructional objectives that are being taught but also to learn everything that they need to know (Carter & Doyle, 1996).

The role that these teachers play in their lives of their students becomes very fundamental but identifying the 'self' in that particular role becomes a very difficult task for many of these prospective teachers (Carter & Doyle, 1996). Those who help to educate teachers before they ever set foot in the classroom often find that teachers who are just about to start in their career often struggle with a very strong assortment of notions that often conflict when they work in attempting to define the role that they will play as a teacher (Carter & Doyle, 1996).

In responding to the particular struggle these educators have moved forward with a more adequate and complete understanding of how one learns to teach (Carter, 1990). This was directed largely by what these teachers actually know before they begin teaching and how the particular knowledge has been acquired (Carter, 1990).

Some studies actually attribute these areas and conflicting notions to the various institutional aspects that teachers think about when they consider their careers and also to the ways in which these upcoming teachers are socialized into the various perspectives and norms of the profession that they will be involved in by the experiences that they have as students (Carter, 1990). It has been argued that this path toward knowledge appears to be quite different depending on the individual that is walking down that particular path (Carter, 1990).

One study also developed a specific model to help illustrate that many of the prior beliefs that teachers have play a vital and critical role in the process that they go through when they are learning to teach (Mercer & Mercer, 1993). It has been found overwhelmingly by researchers who have concentrated on socialization of teachers that the influence that these beliefs had on up-and-coming teachers served as a frame of reference for them that is very strong and is often difficult to ignore (Mercer & Mercer, 1993).

Most students of education would very likely agree that individuals who are learning to teach find that actual teaching involves a lot of practice in a classroom to help with active learning, determining what knowledge is worthwhile and what is not, and engaging the students in various activities (Mercer & Mercer, 1993).

However, if these same individuals really listened to the manner that they talk about these various activities it indicates that a great many of them perceive the role of the teacher in the classroom not to be one of active learning but instead to be one of control (Peck, 1985). There are various ambiguities that come up when trying to define the role of a teacher and they include things such as how, why, and when these individual should teach, and who is in control of this teaching (Peck, 1985). Also included is what teaching actually means to each specific individual (Peck, 1985).

One individual who described her students indicated that they wanted also to teach and that they wanted to be like their favorite teacher but their goal was not defined by a particular and certain path that they could discuss (Peck, 1985). Another school asked about these same issues also found that students who talked about various teachers and classes indicated that they wished to be caring and open individuals but that they also preferred that they were in absolute and complete control over the classroom situation (Peck, 1985). Many times, it is not possible to be as open and caring as one would desire and still keep the strong control over a class that also appears to be significant for many teachers (Peck, 1985).

Because of this, there are many differences between what is considered reciprocal teaching and what is considered direct explanation (Peck, 1985). Both of these are teaching styles and both of them have their merits, but they differ from each other greatly (Peck, 1985). Reciprocal teaching, which is also sometimes termed indirect teaching, involves teacher control that is somewhat lower than what would traditionally be expected and this reduction of teacher control is often intentional (Rodd, 1996).

Students are encouraged to express their opinions and their own various ideas within the classroom and help clarify to the teacher the feelings and the thoughts that they have (Rodd, 1996). This helps them to develop a much stronger responsibility toward their own learning and self-discipline (Rodd, 1996).

The more direct approach taken by many teachers, which traditionally involves giving directions, criticism, and lectures, helps to increase the amount of student compliance that these individuals have with the opinions of the teacher and the directions that the teacher is taking (Rodd, 1996). In other words, the classroom is much more controlled and the teacher maintains this control much more strongly by using behaviors that are considered to be more direct (Rodd, 1996). Using this type of direct style conditions the students in such a way that they often seek the help of the teacher with projects or other issues and also work to gain the approval of the teacher much more often (Rodd, 1996).

Interwoven with all of these issues and with what prospective teachers actually think about classroom situations and what type of control they wish to have over their students may be some influences that are still with them from experiences that they have had in early childhood (Peters, Neisworth, & Yawkey, 1985).

Many of these experiences deal most strongly with authority figures that are considered to be significant such as their parents and other adult relatives. There is, for example, some evidence that indicate that various teachers often model the style of teaching that they utilize on the behavior that their parents have shown them as they have grown up (Peters, Neisworth, & Yawkey, 1985). In Japan, the mother is the one that often begins the teaching of the children, and she takes this teaching very seriously (Allison, 1996). Mothers in Japanese culture are sometimes judged to a certain extent by how their children act in social situations, and therefore the parents find that teaching their children well from an early age is significant for many areas of their lives. There are many preschools and daycares in Japan, however, and these are becoming more and more popular today (Allison, 1996).

Some studies have examined the relationships between the perceptions that these teachers have of their family and what type of home life they had and the classroom climate that they often create (Peters, Neisworth, & Yawkey, 1985). This classroom climate can be either the actual climate that is in the classroom or the climate that these teachers intend to have, whether or not they have succeeded in creating it (McLaughlin, 1991).

The home environment of many of these teachers when they were growing up strongly affects the patterns of behavior that they have, and also affects their expectations for their class and the perceptions that they have of their students when they become teachers (McLaughlin, 1991).

This has had a very strong influence, and an enduring influence, on the various ways that these individuals have learned to deal with people and interrelate with them (Polloway & Patton, 1993). It has been concluded that these various patterns that these individuals use to interrelate with other people can often be traced back to the type of professional role and the kind of climate that these teachers established within their own classrooms in later years (Polloway & Patton, 1993).

The emotional grounding of teachers and the type of interaction that they had with their family life and their parents significantly affects the relationships that they will have with the students under their guidance in later years (Polloway & Patton, 1993). It appears that the emotional acceptance or rejection that these teachers have based on their own childhood is often reflected in the beliefs that they have about teaching and their role in helping students (Polloway & Patton, 1993).

The teachers who accepted who they were in childhood and how they were treated as they grew up had a much stronger ability to support their students and be sensitive to their needs (Polloway & Patton, 1993). They were also much more able to find enjoyment in working with their students and to enter into the world of these various individuals without losing the identity that they have created for themselves as adults (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990).

In sharp contrast to these individuals, teachers who often rejected the selves that they were in childhood and the type of family life that they had growing up appeared in the classroom as emotionally aloof individuals who were not easy to get close to (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990). They often restricted the spontaneity that young children should have and sometimes they did this in such a severe way that they openly played favorites and spoke sarcastically to the children (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990).

This is obviously not positive reinforcement and does not teach good self-discipline behaviors for young students (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). Those same teachers who rejected the selves that they were in childhood and were unhappy with the way they had grown up fit in with other researchers' characterizations of teachers who then elected to have very authoritarian strategies for the management of their classrooms (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995).

Other researchers have also indicated that the effects of characterization of one's role as a teacher and the disciplinary orientations that an individual has can be at least explained partially by various childhood experiences with issues such as rules and boundaries (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). Various childhood experiences that teachers have had in the past with punishment and rewards can strongly influence the perception that these individuals have about the role that they play when they teach (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995).

Individuals who have had strong relationships with authority in the past in both their classrooms and their families may carry this information with them into adulthood and acquire patterns of both verbal and nonverbal communication with their students regarding strong issues of control (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995).

It is important to look at the background of this particular issue and the types of consequences that these teachers can expect from the relationships that they have had in the past (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). There are strong implications for teachers and for teacher education as the experiences that these individuals have had in their childhood influence the behavior that they have as teachers in their adult lives (Curwin & Mendler, 1988).

The term 'teaching style' is used to conceptualize many of the complexities of the relationship between a teacher and the student (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). These teaching styles are often characterized by looking for similarities along a continuum to help to identify various categories of interaction that these different teachers use when they communicate motivation and control in their classrooms and their lives (Curwin & Mendler, 1988).

Teachers may do things such as praise a student, criticize the student, ask a question, or give directions (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). Which one of these things a teacher is most likely to do most often will reflect their teaching style. The interaction is often characterized into quite a number of categories and some of these reflect the teacher influence during a classroom instruction, which can be very direct (Curwin & Mendler, 1988).

Others represent teaching behaviors that are indirect such as using and accepting the various ideas of students, instead of criticizing, lecturing, or directing (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). There some various approaches to teaching styles that have been found to be much more effective for the experiences of teaching and learning (Curwin & Mendler, 1988).

There is research into the issue that has often demonstrated that the verbal behavior of a teacher can influence not only the behavior of the student but their academic outcome as well (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). In general, teachers who spend less time talking and more time using various indirect methods of interacting with the students that they teach are often identified by those students as being superior teachers (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). The students of these teachers also often demonstrate academic progression and behavioral progression that is generally much better than students who are taught by those who have more direct teaching styles (Curwin & Mendler, 1988).

Much of this is because the students have had many opportunities in which to express the ideas that they have and many of the ideas that they have generated in the classroom have been incorporated into the activities that they have utilized for learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Not only does this help the student to experience a strong increase in the knowledge that they have but they also have more self-discipline, more positive attitudes toward the learning environment, and also positive feelings toward their teacher (Deci & Ryan, 1985). When looking at the reciprocal teaching styles, or flexible styles of interaction, it has been found that these indirect ideas may help to generate more of an atmosphere of freedom and acceptance of the students (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

This helps the students to increase the levels that they naturally have of growth, achievement, creativity, and positive attitudes toward themselves and toward others (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Direct teaching styles for various interactional patterns that work to inhibit the responses of students and that are judgmental of the responses that are given inhibit the creativity, growth, and achievement of various students in the classroom (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Ultimately, and sometimes unfortunately, teachers are often affected by the governing styles in the organization of the families that they grew up in, as well as the interpretations that they have retrospectively made from their experiences in the past (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985). This is especially true in the Japanese culture, where rules are somewhat more strict in social circumstances (Boocock, 1989). These teachers often seek to maintain strong control in their classrooms and they intuitively will then act on the perceptions of punishment and reward that they learned in childhood (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985).

Whether a teacher has had acceptance or rejection emotionally in their own experiences as a child is quite often reflected in the beliefs that they have not only about their role as teacher but their climate in the classroom as well (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985).

Studies of teachers views, retrospectively, of the structure of their families suggested that individual teachers that had very poor relationships with their families as they were growing up were much more likely to hold onto the beliefs that teaching is not about helping children learn but rather about making them conform to some norm that is assumed (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985). Teachers who grew up in families that were extremely authoritarian often held onto the beliefs that disciplining a student required punishing them (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985).

Often, these beliefs were held unconsciously and the teacher did not truly realize that this was the case, but the end result was the same (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985). Other studies have indicated that teachers who appeared to positively interrelate themselves with the students that they were teaching also had good childhood experiences to practice various interactive dialogs and were exposed to individuals who were sensitive and supportive of what the individual had to say (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985).

These individuals who were treated with support and love when they were younger passed this all onto the children that they taught in their classrooms when they became teachers (Amidon, Flanders, & Casper, 1985). Individuals who reported that they did not have supportive and coherent family groups when they were younger appeared very aloof in the classroom where emotions were concerned and they tended to maintain interactions with their students that were strongly authoritarian in nature (Cohen, 1999).

It is not easy to make decisions in a classroom (Cohen, 1999). This is partially because classrooms are very complex environments and teachers often must decide things on instinct, and in many cases must decide them very quickly (Cohen, 1999). The prior experience that teachers have had with various disciplinary practices in school and in their families strongly influences their perspectives in this issue and the role that they play as teacher (Cohen, 1999).

The assumptions, therefore, that are utilized concerning the type of discipline they wish to hand down to their students may have at least partially come from their families (Cohen, 1999). As these individuals consider the role that they will play as teacher in the future much of their behavior is actually a function not of what they think they should be doing but other perceptions and their beliefs based on past disciplinary practices (Cohen, 1999).

Punishment, or negative reinforcement as it is sometimes called, describes discipline practices which are both experienced by the teachers during childhood and passed on to the children that they now teach (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). This reflects issues such as loss of privileges, being grounded, being yelled at by parents or other adults, being criticized strongly by their parents, corporal punishment, and the demands made by a parent for absolute and complete obedience (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). While this is more prevalent in the United States than it is in Japan because of cultural differences, the Japanese culture does still have some instances of parents treating their children harshly - and in some cases too harshly (Holloway, 1988).

These early practices in the life of an individual reflect a learned dependence and a very strong group of beliefs that force and punishment are often necessary and important conditions of having authority (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). The histories of teachers regarding the personal punishment that they perceived when they were younger often distinguish a teacher who has elected to treat their classrooms in the same way by utilizing management strategies that reflect very formal roles and status, keeping students in their place, preserving order at all costs, and adhering not only to various rules but to very rigid expectations as well as rules (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998).

These behaviors are quite often identified as being punitive (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). These same type of punitive practices have been shown in many studies to be much less effective than positive reinforcement in helping to develop children who are self-disciplined (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). When these children are criticized, reprimanded, and yelled at by their parents in their home they often learn that this is a very effective way to respond when a provocation has occurred (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998). Unfortunately this strong behavior, more often than not, produces only a destructive effect instead of the desired one (Adams, Treiman, & Pressley, 1998).

Conversely, giving either tangible or intangible behaviors that are positive and reinforce something that the child has done right have often been shown to be much more effective at promoting the desired behavior that parents are looking for in their children (Cooper, 1999). Parents are designed to nurture their children, and the same is true of teachers to a lesser degree (Cooper, 1999).

In order for this to work well, however, it has to be an exchange between two different people who are being mutually considerate of one another (Cooper, 1999). It must satisfy what these individuals need at the moment and it must be reciprocated (Cooper, 1999). Using positive rewards or positive reinforcement helps students learn better and teaches them about understanding, acceptance, and trust (Cooper, 1999). All of these issues make up the basis for allowing these children to develop as responsible adults at a later date (Cooper, 1999).

It also reflects very important and rewarding practices such as being able to make decisions independently, receiving gifts, having family discussions, welcoming friends, enjoying physical affection, going to places that all can enjoy, being complemented by individuals, and questioning authority if it seems inappropriate (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994).

Having positive reinforcement indicates a more liberal attitude toward children and indicates parents and teachers that are somewhat more tolerant of their children's behavior (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994). While some believe that this does not teach children the proper way to behave, it actually helps children learn self-discipline and develop their own internal controls (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994). It not only helps children to be more self-disciplined and motivated, but it helps to expand their independence and thought processes which therefore promotes much more positive actions in the future (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994).

The results of various studies that have been conducted indicate that the disciplinary experiences that teachers had in their families while they were growing up were often indicative of the interactional patterns or teaching styles that they then selected as adults for practice in their classrooms (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994).

There were very significant relationships between the perceptions that these teachers had of reward and the perceptions of a much more indirect teaching style (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994). Individuals who received positive reinforcement when they were young were much more likely to select a teaching style that reflected this same type of positive reinforcement (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994).

Conversely, those who received punishment or negative reinforcement when they were younger were much more likely to select a teaching style that was much more direct and authoritarian (Joseph & Burnaford, 1994). Individuals who selected a teaching style that was very indirect were also more likely to report that either one or both of their parents or other significant adults in their lives when they were younger tolerated and even welcomed disagreements and arguments as long as they were constructive (Jones, 1987).

Those that were rewarded quite strongly when they were younger reported that not only were they invited to participate in various discussions and disagreements that were had by the family, but they were also free and able to question authority if they felt that it was incorrect for some reason (Jones, 1987).

They also recalled that they had a very strong sense of self-worth and self-esteem, had a very good relationship with families and other individuals when they were younger, and imagined that they would have this same type of positive relationship and enjoyable interaction with their students (Albertson & Kagan, 1988). Because utilizing the indirect type of teaching style helps reflect the ability of various students to clarify the ideas that they have it can often be linked to the positive support of these students and the positive self-image that these students will develop (Albertson & Kagan, 1988).

It appears that having a very strong sense of self-worth provides many teachers with a natural ability to be supportive and sensitive of the students that they are teaching instead of insisting that they conform to specific and rigid rules and regulations (Albertson & Kagan, 1988). The memory that these teachers have of being rewarded and treated well when they were young is linked then to the ability and the opportunity to reward their students when there is an occasion that it is appropriate to do so (Albertson & Kagan, 1988).

It is important to note, however, that being rewarded and not being punished are not the same things (Albertson & Kagan, 1988). Individuals who avoid negative reinforcement when they are young but do not get any positive reinforcement either may feel as though they are being ignored or that their parents or teacher simply has no interest in them (Amidon, 1980). Positive reinforcement is important in any culture for the growth of the child. While physical growth will continue regardless of this, mental and emotional growth can be slowed or stunted dramatically by parents and caregivers that are not interested in making sure that a child knows that he or she is loved and cared for. This kind of issue transcends any cultural boundaries.

It is generally expected that there would be a strong relationship between the perceptions that teachers had about punishment and the perceptions that they have based on the correct teaching style (Amidon, 1980). However, many researchers into the subject have found that this idea has not been clearly established by any specific type of research study (Amidon, 1980). Much of this may have to do with unwillingness on the part of the teachers to admit that they were being either directive, critical, or punitive with their students (Amidon, 1980).

Another problem with this issue might be getting these teachers to actually speculate about whether or not they were truly using directive behaviors within their classrooms (Amidon, 1980). In other words, many of the teachers that have been surveyed and talked to in various studies may have looked for responses that were more socially desirable and therefore may have looked away from admitting that they were using any type of punitive or punishment tactics within their classrooms during their normal teaching days (Amidon, 1980).

Another common theme that seems to keep appearing in various literature about the subject deals with the fact that many of these teachers have expectations, feelings, and hopes about teaching and what it involves that are somewhat unrealistic (Amidon, 1980). Because of this these teachers may imagine that the behavior they are utilizing within their classrooms matches their ideal behavior even if it actually does not (Amidon, 1980). When teachers are first learning how to teach and are first introduced to a classroom they may have such a strong anticipation about what they will be doing that their apprehension will not be as obvious (Amidon, 1980). Other studies also show that the styles that parents often utilize when they are teaching their children are often well-intentioned but this does not necessarily mean that the behaviors that these parents actually utilize matches their ideals (Amidon, 1980).

Most individuals rely on what type of personal experiences they have had when looking at a course of action for teaching and therefore the parental links that many of these individuals have regarding their teaching style might help to suggest why being direct and critical is often associated in their minds with punishment (Hawkes & Furst, 1973). It is apparent by looking at this issue that the way that individuals initially learn to relate to others can have strong and often very lasting effects on the behavior that they show in the future (Hawkes & Furst, 1973).

Correlating the reward and punishment factors and the teaching styles indicate that teachers who were rewarded when they were young generally selected a style that was much more indirect (Hawkes & Furst, 1973). Teachers that were rewarded in the past often imagine that students who are willing to express strong feelings will be rewarded by teachers who would listen to them and except their feelings as being valid (Hawkes & Furst, 1973).

These same teachers also often imagine that they had a willingness to allow various discussions and disagreements to take place within their classrooms in order to help gain a more complete understanding of their students' behavior (Hyman, 1997). Education students and teachers who often favored a more direct style imagine that students who had made mistakes and been observed by the teacher in doing so would be punished (Hyman, 1997). This does not necessarily mean that the student would be punished strongly but only that the teacher would be willing to be very directive and therefore inform the student of what error was made and how to correct it (Hyman, 1997). These same individuals appear to have taken the position that rules are certainly made to be enforced and that there was no question that individuals who broke the rules would have to live with whatever consequences their misbehavior created (Hyman, 1997).

These various and different approaches to decision-making and the solving of problems are very critical to teaching styles (Hyman, 1997). It has also been suggested that the relationships that students have with their teachers should be a very important, perhaps the most important, factor in children's learning (Hyman, 1997).

The relationships that these children have with their teachers should help the children to understand that they have actually met with someone who will be willing to have a discussion with them, help to bring out the ideas that they have and extend them further, and make them feel as though they were valued and important (Hyman, 1997). Students in various studies have made comments that teachers who are not well liked by the students make those students not wish to learn and that it is much easier to learn things and feel comfortable in school if one has a teacher who is considered to be nice (Henerick, 1998).

It has been further suggested that various demographic variables also affect the teachers' perceptions of students (Henerick, 1998). How that individual's knowledge is constructed is also balanced by race, class, gender, and age (Henerick, 1998). While this may not seem fair it is largely accurate and the various effects that these implications have influence the perception of these individuals (Henerick, 1998). Gender is one aspect that is important to note with studies such as this (Henerick, 1998). It has been indicated that female teachers most often use indirect teaching methods and that male teachers most often use direct teaching methods which goes along with the proposed theory that men tend to be more tough and critical and women tend to be more nurturing and supportive in general (Henerick, 1998).

This has also been replicated in other studies where it has been found that female teaching students often struggle with various issues about control and care (Glasser, 1990). They are much more willing and interested in demonstrating to their students that they are caring and supportive individuals who are concerned about the students' well-being (Glasser, 1990).

Age was also another factor in many studies because most of them who were older remembered being punished while they were growing up but they also viewed themselves as having indirect teaching styles (Glasser, 1990). It has been hypothesized that those who are older can reflect more strongly on the decisions that have been made for them by others in the past and how these various decisions had an influence on their lives (Glasser, 1990). Researchers that have listed criteria dealing with the best and most appropriate teachers have included the criteria that the teachers be between 30 and 50 years old (Glasser, 1990).

Results of many other studies support the suggestion that teachers in this age range appear to do the best when it comes to nurturing students and providing positive reinforcement that leads to self-discipline (Glasser, 1990). It is possible that the various experiences, both on the professional and personal level, of individuals in a slightly older group reflect the preference that many of them have for a teaching style that is more indirect (Glasser, 1990). Higher income has also been associated with reward, and this is generally not surprising (Glasser, 1990). Families that have a higher income are much more likely to be spared many of the stresses that are related to families with lower incomes (Glasser, 1990).

Families that have higher income often spend a great deal more time with their children, they have more patience with verbal disagreements, and they also have more resources with which to meet the needs that their children may have (Haberman, 1996). Parenting is a difficult role and engages an individual in many different functions within a family unit that influence and in turn are influenced by various aspects within their environment (Haberman, 1996). Race was also associated with reward for many groups (Haberman, 1996). Most Caucasian individuals agreed to being rewarded highly in the past while African-Americans and other ethnic groups related much more negatively to reward and more positively to punishment (Haberman, 1996).

This suggests somewhat that the type of disciplinary style that is utilized by a parent or teacher also has something to do with the culture of that individual in the context in which it occurs (Haberman, 1996). Because of this it is interpreted differently by not only socioeconomic but by ethnic groups as well (Haberman, 1996). Other studies in the past have suggested that a stronger emphasis should be placed on teachers when they are getting their education, and on the support staff of schools, counselors, and school psychologists as well, as they relate to the values, attitudes, and conceptions of students with respect to the differences in culture that are often seen (Haberman, 1996). These various views were supported by other researchers as well and suggested that cultural influence seems to be very important when it comes to a teachers perceptions of how children should be taught and treated (Henry, 1999; Hollingsworth, 1989; Hitz, 1988; Kounin, 1970; Lepper & Greene, 1975).

All experiences that an individual goes through in his or her life cause feelings and opinions and these also affect behavior in one way or another (Lippitt & White, 1943). Within the classroom, nonverbal behavior is one of the most powerful means of communication between a teacher and the students (Lippitt & White, 1943).

It is used within every aspect of the interaction between individuals from delivering the task, offering feedback, conveying ideas, eliciting the feelings and ideas that the learner has, dealing with various deviations that often occur in behavior, and having ordinary discussions with individuals (Lippitt & White, 1943). Those who educate teachers want those future teachers to engage in critical thinking regarding the actions that they carry out when it comes to their students (Lippitt & White, 1943).

In order to do this there must be opportunities for this type of thinking to take place (Lippitt & White, 1943). Personal narratives are one of the ways that this can be done and can help promote discussions with individuals who are learning to teach (Lippitt & White, 1943). It is suggested that a supportive and a caring environment be offered as these student teachers negotiate themselves through various processes of helping to interpret their emotions and images especially when they feel that some contradict with the demands that will be placed on them when they are asked to teach (Lippitt & White, 1943). By looking at these images and exploring how they feel about them regarding the roles of teacher, punishment, and reward, they can help to define this role better and clarify how they actually feel about it and how they will best help their students (Lippitt & White, 1943).

Focusing on these various elements is extremely important because it is necessary to integrate these various aspects into the plans that a teacher has for his or her classroom (Lippitt & White, 1943). Many teachers struggle with this idea of positive or negative reinforcement because they have trouble determining what is actually right or wrong in punishing the student (Lippitt & White, 1943). Many also feel guilty when they punish a student because they are concerned about ramifications and about harming a student (Lippitt & White, 1943). This is much of the reason that positive reinforcement appears to be so important (Lippitt & White, 1943).

Individuals who can examine the personal belief that they have about various disciplinary practices which they have evolved over the years often help to solidify their ideas about teaching and make themselves more professional and comfortable in the classroom (McGilicuddy-De Lisi & Sigel, 1995). It is important, therefore, that the education of teachers provide various opportunities to talk about the beliefs they have about relationships and punishment, as it is such an essential aspect of being a teacher and controlling a classroom appropriately and comfortably (McGilicuddy-De Lisi & Sigel, 1995).

Rademacher (1991) has developed a comprehensive list of the behaviors that should be upheld in the classroom. She calls it her "Recommended Rules and Responsibilities for Cooperative and Productive Classrooms" (Rademacher, 1991). It deals largely with rules, but for both the teacher (responsibilities) and the student (expectations). Although the list is rather long, and sometimes rather simple, it is very valuable, and will be reproduced here, in bullet form. The reason for taking the time and space to reproduce this list here is that there is much more to keeping a positive learning environment going and teaching students self-discipline through positive reinforcement than many realize.

Without being aware of all of the little things that should be done, it is more difficult to understand all of the larger issues that surround the necessary changes that must be made for positive reinforcement to work in a classroom when it comes to disciplinary behaviors. Teachers must do so many small things in order to help the children in their care understand the value of interacting with others and disciplining oneself so that the experience of learning and interaction can be enjoyed by everyone present.

Enter the classroom quietly.

Walk in and speak softly.

Stand at the door.

Put away belongings.

Wait to share conversations with students.

Take assigned seat.

Establish areas for putting away coats, turning in assignments, and so on.

Create a permanent seating arrangement.

Recognize appropriate behaviors.

Begin work on time.

Listen to/read instructions carefully.

Prepare practice assignments in advance.

Begin to work immediately.

Expect students to begin to work promptly.

Monitor student behavior.

Stay on task.

Ignore distractions from others.

Assign developmentally appropriate tasks.

Continue to work with interruptions.

Check for student understanding.

Provide positive and corrective feedback.

Monitor student behavior and assignment completion progress.

Prevent/end distracting behaviors.

Complete work on time

Check assignment completion.

State complete assignment information, including requirements, grading criteria.

Ask questions to better understand.

Provide appropriate models and demonstrations.

Set goals for assignment completion.

Teach goal setting.

Allow sufficient class time for work.

Follow directions and listen carefully.

Gain student attention.

Maintain a positive body posture.

Model good listening skills.

Encourage verbal elaboration.

Teach appropriate statements for avoiding conflicts.

Use kind words to tell how you feel.

Teach techniques for self-control.

Model respect toward students and peers.

Keep hands, feet, and objects to self.

Avoid hitting, kicking, or throwing things.

Teach safety habits and procedures.

All of the above list comes from Rademacher (1991), but it is not completely inclusive. Her actual words have been used to ensure a complete understanding of what she was attempting to get across, and credit should be given to her.

However, some of the list she has created is rather repetitious and therefore the list above is somewhat shorter than what she actually created. It is, certainly, long enough to see what kind of information she was trying to impart and to understand the significance of the small things that were seen as so important to her and to many others that were struggling with how to teach positive reinforcement and self-discipline within in the classroom setting. This is especially true with the younger students, as many of them have not yet learned enough self-control so that they can act appropriately (Rademacher, 1991).

Managing a classroom effectively is very important because it promotes learning on an independent level and success for all of the students in a particular classroom (Britzman, 1986). In order to do this, classrooms need to be orderly, pleasant, and productive (Britzman, 1986).

Having a rule management system in the classroom and using systematic instructional processes by various teachers help guide students toward successfully being able to comply with the rules within the classroom, on the job, and later on in the community (Britzman, 1986). It should be a very important part of the classroom management system that is in every teacher's agenda (Britzman, 1986). Teachers who use these classroom management procedures often find them very effective and they help to establish specific rules that allow students to manage instruction, time, materials, and behavior (Britzman, 1986).

This helps to increase both the involvement of students and the instructional time that is available for learning activities that are deemed appropriate for the students (Brophy, 1983). There are many formal and procedural routines that have been developed over the years to help teachers in various educational levels manage many of the elements within their classrooms but there are very few specific and complete guidelines that have been established for helping to develop and eventually implement classroom rules that are effective (Brophy, 1983).

Much of this is the case where students with disabilities are concerned (Brophy, 1983). Much of the information here applies to all students, but students with developmental disabilities are particularly at risk for having difficulties in the classroom because they have very unique learning difficulties and often behavioral difficulties as well (Brophy, 1983).

It is, therefore, critically and vitally important that rules and procedures in the classroom are unambiguous, clear, and concise (Brophy & Good, 1986). Guidelines for special education teachers in order to help them develop rule management systems that are effective in the classroom are important and much of the information contained here can be carried over into regular classrooms that contain students who do not have special needs (Brophy & Good, 1986). All of these rules serve as part of the systematic instructional process which is utilized to help the students guide themselves toward the cooperation and self-discipline which is required for having a successful performance in the classroom and other areas (Brophy & Good, 1986).

Those teachers who work toward developing and implementing rule management routines that are deemed effective do not simply tell the students what the specific rules are governing their behavior and how they should be followed, but instead they systematically work to teach the students how these rules are to be followed and why it is so important that the students follow them (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

These teachers also must deal with any type of inappropriate behavior in a very quick manner and be consistent without undermining the fragile sense of dignity and self-worth that many of the students have (Karpov & Haywood, 1998). Teachers who are interested in ensuring that positive reinforcement leads to self-discipline in their classrooms monitor not only the daily academic performance of their students but also their behavior from day-to-day and how they respond to the procedures and rules that are given in the classroom (Delpit, 1998).

In order to have an effective rule management routine that will lend itself toward positive reinforcement and self-discipline, there should be procedures available for teaching, planning, and evaluating how effective the classroom rules are and how well the process of positive reinforcement and self-discipline is working (Delpit, 1998). There are several things that should be done in the planning phase (Delpit, 1998).

During this phase it is important to create rules that are well-designed and that are based on productive and cooperative learning behavior (Delpit, 1998). It is also important that specific behaviors among the students should be identified, especially if these students are having trouble with complying with the rules or there are rules that the teacher feels the students may have difficulty complying with in the near future (Delpit, 1998).