Kuhn's distinction between paradigms and theories in scientific practice

¶ … Interdisciplinary Approaches to Learning)

How does a paradigm differ from a theory? Include information from Kuhn regarding a paradigm so that you demonstrate your understanding of Kuhn regarding a paradigm.

In his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970), Thomas Kuhn first used the term "paradigm" to describe the process that takes place on science when one major research paradigm is replaced by a newer one. According to Dobel, "For Kuhn, a paradigm is both an intellectual and a sociological construct. It provides a framework of basic assumptions about the nature of knowledge, rules of evidence and inference, and maps and directions for what constitutes important and vital problems" (2001, p. 166). While theories remain unconfirmed, it was Kuhn's perspective that paradigms provide "apparently permanent solutions to an outstanding set of problems" (1970, p. 44). Likewise, in contrast to a theory, Kuhn described the manner in which paradigms are used consensually (Thomas, 2007). For instance, according to Kuhn, there are two fundamental periods in the history of science: (a) "periods of normal science in which the relevant community operates unquestioningly within a generally accepted paradigm committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice" (1970, p. 11), and (b) "periods of revolutionary science in which precisely such an underlying consensus is then undercut" (Nickles, 2003, p. 12). From Kuhn's perspective, if experiments are conducted that confirm a paradigm, everything is copasetic and the body of knowledge is enlarged; however, if experiments fail to confirm existing theories in a paradigm, it is assumed that the fault is attributable to problems in design or interpretation of the experiment (Thomas, 2007).

Progress in science represents a stumbling block for Kuhn, though, since he does not believe there is an authentic approach to assessing whether a given scientific paradigm is true, or truer, than another paradigm (Nickles, 2003). Similarly, one of Kuhn's overarching questions relates to this inability: "Inasmuch as several theories can sometimes account for all of the available facts or evidence, why then is one theory chosen over another? It is here that Kuhn is at his best, invoking the non-cognitive factors involved in theory-choice" (Guarino, 2003, p. 44).

In contrast to a paradigm, Kuhn maintains that "one theory is often preferred to another because of conative rather than intellective factors such as one's attachment to a particular system, the time one has invested in it, its importance for one's peers, the methodology acceptable to the professional guild, the political allegiances of thinkers, their class interests, indoctrination, and so the list continues" (Guarino, 2003, p. 44). Moreover, because of this inability to rely on truthfulness, Kuhn resorts to new paradigms to address these gaps in knowledge. In this regard, Nickles notes that, "Unable to appeal to truth, Kuhn appeals to puzzle-solving: the ability of a new paradigm to provide answers to questions (how to do certain calculations, how to explain certain experiments, etc.) to which previous paradigms were not able to respond" (2003, p. 56).

The manner in which the solar system operates with the earth circling the sun, for example, would represent a strong paradigm for Kuhn. In this regard, Dobel notes that, "A strong paradigm focuses researchers on critical issues, building an edifice of knowledge with an internal coherence" (2001, p. 166). Over time, such strong paradigms become the framework in which further studies are made and serve to focus research in certain ways. According to Dobel, over time, paradigms become "normal science" wherein "Textbooks enshrine the paradigm that is handed on through practice and training; it becomes a worldview that gives meaning, order, and significance to facts and directs action, while determining what constitutes worthy knowledge and projects" (2001, p. 166). Finally, in sharp contrast to the narrow focus of a theory, a paradigm also provides the framework in which collaborative efforts can be accomplished. For instance, Dobel notes that, "When established, it becomes almost taken for granted and it enables a community of practitioners and scholars to work together on shared projects. It forges a complex web of knowledge, problems, procedures, and community" (2001, p. 166).

B.

Do you feel it is possible to have a leadership paradigm? State your position and defend it.

Given its importance to evolution and development of human history, it is not surprising that a great deal of research has been focused on leadership over the years, and the body of knowledge concerning what attributes and traits contribute to superior leadership has become ponderous as a result. It is possible to glean a fundamental leadership paradigm from this body of knowledge, though, provided that it is regarded as a framework in which to understand what motivates people and how various leadership methods have been shown to affect performance rather than a cookbook-type set of recipes that can be pulled out and applied when necessary. In fact, empirical observations and many authorities suggest that in sharp contrast to consistently effective leaders, there is no "one-size-fits-all" type of leadership that is equally effective in all circumstances. In other words, consistently effective leaders will likely draw on a leadership paradigm that provides them with the leadership style that is best suited to a given situation that transcends mere intuition or experience-based approaches.

C.

Do you feel there is trend away from the position presented by Kuhn in today's society?

Although there are some indications that Kuhn's perspective is being relegated to yet another paradigm, it is reasonable to suggest that his work remains influential today. For instance, according to Guarino, "Kuhn's opus magnum is now over 40 years old. But his thought continues to spark controversy and the insights of his post-positivist manifesto continue to call forth important works of commentary and analysis" (2003, p. 44). In fact, although current trends may lead to various tangential conceptualizations, many scholars remain highly influenced by Kuhn's 1962 book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. For instance, Franklin reports that:

Interest in Kuhn's book has not waned. The Index is now online, and records one-hundred citations to the book for 1999 -- plus another four-hundred in the Social Sciences Citation Index. To call the tone of most of these citations reverential would be something of an understatement. It is reported that Structure is Al Gore's favorite book, and William Safire's New Political Dictionary has an article on 'paradigm shift,' a phrase popularized by Kuhn, which reports both Bush (senior) and Clinton being much impressed with its usefulness. (2000, para. 1)

Indeed, the notion of a "paradigm" as conceptualization by Kuhn remains a fixture in scientific and educational communities of practice in ways that continue to change the way things are done and how the world is viewed (Forster, 1998).

Area II: (Research Methods)

Research study usually advances the idea that research, or any disciplined inquiry, is carried out within the constraints of control and randomization.

a.

Define and discuss what is meant by control and randomization in the context of leadership research.

In scientific research, the original meaning of the term "control" was to establish some type of check or comparison by which the results of an experiment could be measured. In this regard, Pedhazur and Schmelkin advise, "The reason is that at least one comparison is necessary in order to assess the validity of a finding or an inference made from it. This is also why control connotes in the minds of many modern-day researchers and readers the use of a 'control group,' one that did not receive the treatment being credited with affecting the dependent variable" (1991, p. 212). According to Howson and Urbach, "A prognostic factor has been 'controlled for' in a trial when it is distributed in equal measure in both the test and the comparison situations. So, for example, in a clinical trial involving a disease whose progress or intensity is known to depend on the patient's age would be controlled for that prognostic factor when the test and control groups have similar age structures" (2005, p. 185).

Another good example of control in experiments is provided by Bogartz who reports that, "As an extraneous variable, such as temperature variation in the experimental room, is discovered, experimental control of the variable is exerted, say, by introducing a thermostatically controlled heating or cooling device, in order to hold the range of variation of the extraneous variable within acceptable limits" (1994, p. 5). Likewise, control for the effects of time of day can be achieved by having all of the study's subjects exercise during the same period of the day with testing being conducted in a sound-secured facility (Bogartz, 1999).

Randomization, on the other hand, involves first dividing an experimental study's subjects into groups using a random process so the researcher can treat all of the groups as being equivalent (Neuman, 2003). In this regard, Gliner and Morgan report that, "Random selection has to do with who the participants in the study will be, and how they are selected. In the ideal situation, the sample is selected to be representative of all the possible participants who fit the selection criteria" (2000, p. 65). By controlling these two aspects of a scientific experiment, researchers are able to establish the specific causality of the phenomenon being studied. In this regard, Kahle and Riley note that, "Traditionally, causality is established through strict control and randomization over all other factors while experimentally manipulating the variable or variables in question" (2004, p. 165). Finally, Gliner and Morgan (2000) report that the internal validity (discussed further below) and the ability to infer causality based on the results of a study can be enhanced through the random assignment of the participants to intervention vs. control groups.

b.

What is meant by internal validity and external validity in leadership research and discuss three factors within each (internal and external) validity factor?

Internal validity. According to Chandler and Lyon, generally speaking, "Validity refers to the establishment of evidence that the measurement is actually measuring the intended construct. Measures can be reliable without being valid, but cannot be valid without being reliable" (2001, p. 102). With respect to internal validity, this term refers to the degree of validity of the assertions being made by a researcher concerning the effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). According to Pedhazur and Schmelkin, "In the broadest sense, this can be stated in the form of the question: Is what has taken place (i.e., the phenomenon observed) due to the variables the researcher claims to be operating (e.g., manipulated variables), or can it be attributed to other variables?" (1991, p. 224). By taking steps to ensure the internal validity of a study's design, researchers can rule out alternative explanations for the results they obtain. In this regard, Pedhazur and Schmelkin add that, "In essence, the validity of the answer to this question depends on the plausibility of alternative answers, that is, alternative explanations. It follows that internal validity is the sine qua non-of meaningful research" (1991, p. 224).

Internal validity can be enhanced by ensuring there are relevant controls in place, but researcher bias remains a confounding factor in the interpretation of the results that emerge from any study (Berg, 2007). For example, according to Pedhazur and Schmelkin, "Other things equal, the more powerful the controls one exercises, the more internally valid the study. The tendency to overlook evidence that goes counter to one's expectations and hypotheses, or to misinterpret, even rationalize, such evidence, is quite common" (1991, p. 225). A number of threats to internal validity exist, including those described in Table 1 below.

Table 1

Threats to Internal Validity

Threat

Description

History

This threat includes events that took place in the course of a study that might have affected its outcome. Whether a given event poses a threat to the internal validity of a study depends on the specifics of the study.

Maturation

This type of threat refers to changes that people being studied undergo with the passage of time, including growing older, gaining experience, becoming tired, hungry, and the like. The concern is that responses (e.g., learning, motivation, aggression, concentration) attributed to treatments may be, in part or wholly, due to such maturational processes. It is also possible for maturation to interact with treatments.

Testing

When people are measured several times on the same variable, their performance may be affected by, among other things, practice, memory of earlier responses, sensitization and/or conjectures regarding the purpose of the research and the expectations of the researcher. For example, given a pretest, followed by some treatments, and then a posttest, observed changes in, say, learning, attitudes, empathy, and altruism, may be a consequence of the pretest and/or the interaction between the pretest and the treatments

Instrumentation

Internal validity is compromised when differences in outcomes of different treatments may be attributed, to a greater or lesser extent, to aspects of the instruments used. This may occur when, for example, measures believed to be equivalent are not equivalent (e.g., they tap somewhat different competencies, orientations, or they differ in difficulty, in appeal). Another example would be cosmetic changes in instruments, which in actuality constitute changes in what they are measuring. A related example is one in which no changes are made in the instruments, but the researchers become more proficient in using them in the course of the study

Source: Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991, p. 225

External validity. According to Neuman, external validity refers to "the ability to generalize from experimental research to settings or people that differ from the specific conditions of the study" (2003, p. 535). Likewise, Gliner and Morgan (2000) report that, "External validity is an aspect of research validity that depends in part on the quality of the sample. External validity asks the question of generalizability: To what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables can this effect be generalized?" (p. 158). Although some researchers may associate the external validity of a study with its internal validity, Gliner and Morgan (2000) maintain these are two completely independent constructs that must be evaluated separately. According to these authorities, "Questions dealing with the external validity of a study are based on the principle that a good study should be rated high on external validity, or, if not, the author should at least be cautious about generalizing the findings to other measures, populations, and settings" (Gliner & Morgan, 2000, p. 159).

c.

Discuss why research is critical to the leadership profession, both in profit and non-profit realms.

The results of well-conducted research can be of enormous value to the leadership profession in virtually any setting in countless ways. For example, Zanna (2003) reports that, "Leadership is quite clearly a social psychological phenomenon that is inextricably grounded in social relations, group life, and the psychology of group membership. Not surprisingly, the study of leadership has long been a central concern of social scientists" (p. 1). Likewise, according to Neuman, "Educators, administrators, government officials, business leaders, human service providers and health care professionals regularly use social research findings and principles in their jobs. Social research can be used to raise children, reduce crime, improve public health, sell products or just understand one's life" (2003, p. 1). Ongoing research serves to contribute to the body of knowledge that is used by leaders to achieve organizational goals and motivate followers. Moreover, the results of research in effective leadership can help provide a set of best industry practices that can be used to improve the performance of organizations at all levels (Rosenbach & Taylor, 1998).

d.

Identify and critically discuss one published research article that you studied during your graduate studies. Talk about its strengths and weaknesses from a research design perspective.

Area III: (Core Study Area)

A.

A major responsibility of leaders is to manage change within their organizations. Thoroughly describe the change process.

On the one hand, change is inevitable in an organizational setting, but on the other hand, people tend to dislike change because it disrupts their comfort zone and requires them to learn new ways of doing things that require extra time and effort on their part. For instance, Axelrod (2001) emphasizes that in many cases, organizational leaders fail to achieve the full advantages of a change initiative and attribute their failure to an inability to harness sufficient resources or support for the effort, but the real reason is the approach they used to effect the change. In this regard, Axelrod notes that, "What they often fail to recognize is that the very change management process they employed is the root cause of the problem" (para. 1). In other cases, people may be so reluctant to change their routine that they will actively engage in efforts to thwart the implementation of change and sabotage any change efforts by management (Zaccarro & Klimoski, 2001). It is therefore the responsibility of organizational leaders to communicate the need for any change, ensure that all stakeholders recognize the inevitability of the process and that everyone involved is focused on achieving the same outcome (Chemers, 1997). In sum, communication of the envisioned change to all of the affected stakeholders preparatory to the change initiative, continuing open dialogue during the change process as well as following implementation are all key ingredients for success. In this regard, Day, Halpin and Zaccaro (2004) point out that ensuring this level of communication throughout the change process is a fundamental responsibility of the organizational leadership team.

B.

Select one organization, either where you work, or one you want to write about, and discuss a significant possible change for this organization. Include the topics of organizational development, organizational culture, followership, and mission as part of this discussion.

As the nation's largest healthcare provider, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is responsible for the provision of tertiary and outpatient medical services for millions of veterans, and in some cases, their families as well (VA, 2011). Since its founding, the VA has been tasked with assuming an advocacy role on behalf of veterans, but this role has shifted in recent years to one that is more characteristic of an adversarial role. In fact, law firms across the country are taking advantage of this shift by offering to represent veterans who are struggling with the VA bureaucracy to attain the compensation and healthcare benefits to which they believe they are entitled by virtue of their military service. Because veterans are prohibited by law from paying for legal representation before the VA unless and until their case reaches the appellate levels such as with the Court of Veterans Appeals in Washington, DC, the proliferation of the mainstream media advertisements by these law firms seeking to represent veterans in recent years is indicative of this shift in role from advocate to adversary.

The overarching mission of the VA is set forth in Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address which is prominently displayed on the west wall of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC: "To care for him who shall have borne the battle, his orphans and his widow" (About VA, 2011). This mission, then, is intended to shape the corporate culture of this cabinet-level organization. According to Recardo and Jolly, "When people talk about corporate culture, they are generally talking about a set of values and beliefs that are understood and shared by members of an organization. These values and beliefs are specific to that organization and differentiate it from other organizations. An organization's culture helps to shape, and quite frequently to determine, the behaviors of the members and the practices within the organization" (1997, p. 5). Recardo and Jolly describe several dimensions of a corporate culture, including those described in Table 2 below.

Table 2

Dimensions of Corporate Culture

Dimension

Description

Communications

This dimension involves the number and types of communication systems and what information is communicated and how. This includes the direction of communications (top down or bottom up vs. three-way), whether the communications are filtered or open, whether conflict is avoided or resolved, and whether formal (meetings, memoranda, etc.) or informal vehicles are used to transmit and receive communications.

Training and Development

Employee success is to a large extent dependent on new skill acquisition. Key indices to assess are management's commitment to providing developmental opportunities and how well the organization allows new skills or behaviors to be applied on the job. A key index to review is management's focus on education; e.g., is management focused on providing education for employees' current or future developmental needs?

Rewards

This dimension concerns what behaviors are rewarded and the types of rewards used. Are employees rewarded individually or as a group, are all members of the organization eligible for bonuses, and what are the criteria for advancement? Other criteria measured include the degree to which employees are involved in developing performance standards, the perceived equity of rewards, and the degree to which the organization provides performance feedback

Decision Making

This dimension addresses how decisions are made and conflicts resolved. Are decisions fast or slow? Is the organization highly bureaucratic? Is decision-making centralized or decentralized?

Risk Taking

This dimension concerns whether creativity and innovation are valued and rewarded, whether calculated risk-taking is encouraged, and whether there is openness to new ideas. To what degree does management encourage suggestions for improvement? Are people punished for trying new ideas or questioning existing ways of doing things?

Planning

Does the organization emphasize long-term or short-term planning, and is planning proactive or reactive? To what extent are the strategy, goals, and vision shared with employees? Is the planning process informal or structured? To what degree are employees committed to achieving the business strategy and other organizational objectives?

Teamwork

This dimension relates to the amount, type, and effectiveness of teamwork within the organization. It includes, but is not limited to, the amount of cooperation among different departments, the amount of trust between different functions or units, and the level of automation currently used to support work processes. Note that an atmosphere of teamwork does not, in itself, necessarily mean that formal teams should be used in an organization. For instance, research scientists may foster an atmosphere of collaboration and teamwork but may not be a team and may operate quite independently.

What is meant by high quality ethics in leadership?

One of the more challenging aspects of defining ethical conduct in leadership is the subjectivity of the concepts that are involved. For instance, as Wilkins and Coleman (2005) point out, "It is risky to write in general terms about the ethical reasoning of [people] because they are so diverse" (p. 37). This observation suggests that what might pass for ethical in one setting would be viewed as being unethical in another, particularly when there are powerful cultural factors that are involved. Nevertheless, it is possible to define high quality ethics in leadership through a careful examination of what an individual does in response to various challenges in the workplace -- even when there are no specific guidelines available to assess the ethical aspects of these behaviors. In this regard, Taylor, Kazakov and Thompson (1997) note that, "Business people have engaged in the practice of making ethical decisions, on a daily basis, in areas where no law prescribes an answer. To explain the fundamental values out of which these practices spring is not a simple matter. In our opinion, the answer varies with the individual -- whether from religious tradition, upbringing, education, cultural mores, or a mixture of these influences" (p. 5).

For corporate leaders, high quality ethics then will extend to all of the stakeholders who are involved, and these may number far more than many observers might believe. For instance, Gustafon emphasizes that, "Corporate ethics focuses specifically on issues of morality associated with business enterprises. These include relations internal to the organization (e.g., treatment of employees, dealings with shareholders, questions concerning product quality and customer service, etc.) as well as external relations (e.g., interactions with government, specific communities, society as a whole, the impact of corporate activities on the natural environment, etc.)" (2008, p. 1).

High quality ethical practices, though, are not easy to formulate or to sustain over the long-term. For instance, according to Garnett (1960), "Socially unwholesome and unfair customs, as well as fair and wholesome ones, have a gradual growth. . . . Yet wherever there is ethical thinking there arises protest against these tendencies" (p. 49). Moreover, ethical dilemmas may present such a wide array of variables that determining the best course of action can be problematic, even for the most ethical-minded leader. For instance, Miller (2004) emphasizes that, "Although indispensable to ethical thinking, moral intuitions are fallible" (p. 111).

B.

Do you feel ethics are more important today in our difficulty economy, or can we be less ethical because of the economy today? Explain.

Resources by definition are always scarce, but the lingering economic downturn has created an environment in which organizational leaders may be tempted to cut corners or achieve a competitive advantage through less than scrupulous practices. These types of behaviors are easily rationalized as being justified because people's jobs and livelihoods are at stake, but these temptations can result in adverse outcomes that were unintended and unexpected. Unfortunately, this tendency to engage in unethical behaviors for good reasons has been exacerbated further by innovations in technology that have not been matched by timely ethical frameworks for their application. For instance, Mcintyre-Mills (2000) notes that, "Advances in technological thinking have not as yet been accompanied by advances in socio, cultural and ethical thinking. Skilled workers may be efficient in so far as they achieve the goals of the organization, but whether they achieve effective or desirable change as far as all the stakeholders are concerned, is debatable" (p. 49).

In reality, though, ethical decision making is typically a challenging enterprise in any environment because of the nebulous qualities of many of the factors that are involved, and these gray areas can confound even the most ethical-minded decision maker. If organizational leaders approach their current situations from an ethical thinking perspective, they will be able to see the "big picture" in ways that might not otherwise be attainable, including the potential adverse outcomes of unethical behaviors. In this regard, Mitias emphasizes that, "Ethical thinking, like thinking generally, derives primarily from the imagination, or what might be functionally termed the 'moral imagination.' In other words, ethical thinking is the capacity to analogize, to connect meanings across domains to control activities and their consequences" (1992, p. 155). This is a challenging goal, to be sure, but ethical thinking can help discern what should be done as opposed to what could be done. In this regard, Mitias also notes that, "Ethical thinking as a specific genre is thinking that emerges in moral problems or situations. Ethical thinking occurs when the problematic is characterized by the basic evaluative question: What should be done (in light of competing ends or goods)?" (p. 155).

Fortunately, it is possible to help organizational leaders develop the skills and intuition that are needed to make real-time ethical decisions in the workplace. For instance, Cohen, Mcdaniels and Qualters (2005) advise, "Ethical training can enhance ethical awareness and sensitivity, clarify and refine ethical thinking and decision-making, and transform ethical decisions into practical responses" (p. 121). Likewise, Sims (1994) reports that, "Ethics training has been identified as an important component in countering unethical behavior in organizations. As a result, there has been a sharp increase in the number of organizations that have developed some form of ethics training in the United States and abroad" (p. 148).

C.

Identify who you feel are two of the best women leaders from our history. Why do you feel they are the best examples of leaders? Include some evidence of theory, skills, and success to defend your selection for this response.

Two of the best women leaders in American history could said to be Victoria Woodhull, the first woman to run for the office of President of the United States and Eleanor Roosevelt and these individuals are discussed further below

Victoria Woodhull. According to Penney and Livingston, Victoria Woodhull was "a colorful but extremely controversial figure" who "inserted herself into the woman suffrage movement. And she would decidedly not limit her speeches to the topic of woman suffrage" (2004, p. 190). Much like Jimmy Carter's sudden national appearance in his run for the presidency, few people in the women's suffrage movement had even heard of Woodhull prior to January 1871, and Penney and Livingston (2004) report that although the initial response to her involvement was a positive one, many members were disillusioned by the divisiveness she created. In truth, Woodhull had a lot going for her during this early period in American history. For instance, Penney and Livingston note that, "Woodhull was intelligent, attractive, and charming" (2004, p. 191). Likewise, Dinkin (1995) reports that, "The early 1870s saw the appearance of the first female presidential candidate -- the notorious and highly unconventional Victoria Woodhull. Woodhull, who grew up in a family of spiritualists, had little formal education but possessed striking beauty along with a magnetic personality" (p. 66).

In sum, Woodhull would need all of these attributes to overcome her dubious background and attain an influential position in American politics. In this regard, Penney and Livingston also point out that, "Woodhull and her sister Tennessee Claflin arrived in New York in 1868 with a checkered history as 'psychic healers'" (2004, p. 191). The two sisters went on to form a close relationship with Cornelius Vanderbilt who helped Woodhull learn how to invest in the stock market and generate significant revenues in the process. Using the money she earned through her stock market investments, Woodhull became a female pioneer in the all-male financial and political woods in two ways. According to Penney and Livingston:

Vanderbilt helped Woodhull amass a small fortune on the stock market and, in January 1870, open a Wall Street brokerage firm with her sister. This was the first such firm ever operated by women and it generated much publicity. Reveling in her new celebrity status, Woodhull announced in April her candidacy for President of the United States. (2004, p. 191)

Moreover, despite her "checkered past," Woodhull appears to have possessed many of the qualities that help propel people into the Oval Office, including an astute grasp of the Constitution and an intuitive ability to understand what other people wanted (Penney & Livingston, 2004). For instance, Dinkin reports that, "An excellent public speaker, Woodhull became the first of her sex to address a congressional committee in Washington, D.C. (1871), arguing that women as American citizens under the recently amended Constitution should already be qualified as voters" (1995, p. 66). Certainly, no one was surprised when Woodhull's run for the presidency failed, but it is reasonable to suggest that influential female political leaders such as Hillary Clinton and Sarah Palin stand on the shoulders of this female American giant today.

Eleanor Roosevelt. In sharp contrast to Woodhull, Eleanor Roosevelt was not a particularly attractive woman, but the important roles she played during Franklin D. Roosevelt's lengthy tenure as president reshaped the roles for all future American president's wives (Spangenburg & Moser, 1997). One biographer reports that, "Roosevelt lived a very long, engaged life. Born in 1884, her life and work spanned major developments of the twentieth century -- Progressive reform and the civil rights movement; the Great Depression; world wars, both hot and cold -- until her death in 1962. She played multiple, often contradictory roles: devoted wife and mother; reformer and activist; political operative and diplomat; and professional writer and journalist" (Feeley, 2010, p. 174). Indeed, the American public would come to truly love and admire this first lady for a number of reasons, including most especially her sense of fair play and justice during a period of American history when both of these qualities were noticeably absent for large segments of the population. In this regard, Spangenburg and Moser report that, "The more Eleanor probed at the racial issues she saw around her, the less she liked what she saw, and she became outspoken on the subject of civil rights. She went to visit black schools and communities, became friends with black leaders and saw the humiliation firsthand" (1997, p. 73).

Although President Roosevelt was a forceful leader in his own right, his ability to influence others stopped when it came to his own wife, due in part to the falling out that occurred between the two over an extramarital affair Franklin was having with the family' social secretary. In this regard, Feeley (2010) describes this event as "the major turning point in Eleanor's marriage, which became a platonic, if loving, partnership after her devastating 1918 discovery of Franklin's affair with Lucy Mercer, their social secretary. More importantly, thereafter, she was a 'changed woman' who would 'pursue her own interests ... And ideals'" (p. 175). In some cases, Eleanor's "own interests and ideals" would differ significantly from the mainstream political views of the day. For instance, Spangenburg and Moser point out that, "Some of Franklin's advisers thought Eleanor went too far, spoke out too radically, and that she would rock the political boat that had swept them all into office. Some critics even began to accuse her of socialism, or even communism, but she still had many friends, and thousands of people continued to cheer her in the streets and at meetings" (1997, p. 73). Accepting the inevitability of Eleanor's activist role in American politics to promote racial and social justice, President Roosevelt even used her efforts to his advantage from time to time. As Spangenburg and Moser point out, "Franklin knew he couldn't stop her, even if he wanted to, and he liked to let Eleanor put her foot in the water first to test the temperature. Then, with a little luck, he could gain credit for her liberal views among liberals, without losing the support of conservative Southern Democrats, an important part of his coalition" (1997, p. 74).

In other cases, though, even the President of the United States could not help Eleanor overcome the entrenched and institutionalized racism that permeated the country during the early part of the 20th century. According to Spangenburg and Moser:

Eleanor Roosevelt became an early beacon in the 1930s for the cause of racial justice. She began working with African-American educator Mary McLeod Bethune, who headed the Division of Negro Affairs for the NYA [National Youth Administration] and was the highest ranking African-American in the federal government at that time. She and Eleanor became friends, and Mary Bethune often visited the White House. (1997, p. 72)

This friendship with a prominent African-American female leader would result in a defining moment in Eleanor's career. When Eleanor attended the Southern Conference for Human Welfare held in Birmingham, Alabama in 1939 with Bethune, the pair was advised that they would not be allowed to sit next to each other because it was against Alabama law for whites and blacks to do so in public gatherings (Spangenburg & Moser, 1997). The first lady's angered response was to initially refuse to move, but when she was advised she was breaking the law, she simply moved her chair to the center aisle which was regarded as "neutral territory" (Spangenburg & Moser, 1997). This event is reflective of the fine-tuned sense of racial and social fair play that Eleanor Roosevelt developed during his many years as first lady, an attribute that was rare among leaders of either gender in the early 20th century.