Conference Theories to Support Conference

Conference

Theories to support conference themes and their application, reflecting updates for more current literature on the theory bases, and synthesizing and evaluating how the practices of public administration today and in the future relate to or integrate with the four or five theory bases.

Some criminological theories attempt to differentiate issues to provide "distinctly different theories of crime for women," questioning whether prevailing themes are applicable to the female offender population (Proctor, 2004, p. 61). Because many of the prevailing theories of crime and criminology evolved within an andro-centric schema, it may be necessary to revise such theories, accommodate for them, or develop new theories. As Fletcher, Shaver, & Moon (1993) put it, "women's experiences in the criminal justice system cannot be fully comprehended without recognizing the importance of patriarchy as a defining characteristic of those experiences" (p. 1). The development of new gyno-centric theories may be especially helpful from a public administration standpoint. This is because administration and public policy follow directly from theoretical frameworks.

A female-centered theoretical stance might re-define crime itself, as well as determine appropriate treatment or structural interventions for crime from an administrative standpoint. Prisons have not kept pace with the relatively rapid growth of the numbers and proportions of women in prison, and the needs of women differ significantly from the needs of men (Covington, 1998). It is possible that the prevailing andro-centric theories are doing damage to the population of women policies intend to serve.

A revisionist theory may indeed be helpful in coming to terms with the fact that "some of the most neglected, misunderstood and unseen women in our society are those in our jails, prisons, and correctional facilities," (Covington, 1998). This is why the 5th Annual NYS Reentry Policy Conference addresses the concept of "Elevating Women" by "Strengthening Policies and Practices to Support the Needs of Justice-Involved Women." Research has consistently shown that criminological studies on male populations cannot be generalized to account for the female "justice-involved" population (Bonta, Pang & Wallace-Capretta, 1995).

However, women-centric theories remain underdeveloped for several reasons for one, there is some resistance to a gendered view of criminality and criminal justice. Proctor (2004) claims that "a special brand of theorizing is not required to adequately explain female criminality," (p. 61). Existing theories like Agnew's Extended Strain Theory, Sutherland's Differential Association Theory, and Hirschi's 1969 Social Control Theory do apply well to incarcerated women and can inform public policy on the matter (Proctor, 2004). Further research reveals that there are some demographic factors that might link male and female prison populations, including race, class, social status, and history of substance abuse (Covington, 1998). If the range of female criminality can in fact be applied universally, then that too has tremendous implications for public administrators.

Relational theory "helps us understand what women needs from our criminal justice system," (Covington, 1998, p. 1). Relational theory looks at the female experience in terms of developmental psychology, suggesting that women reach successful maturity by forming strong meaningful relationships with others -- especially family members but also friends and members of the community. When those relationships are disrupted, it can lead to psychological issues and criminality. Relational theory can account for some of the causal factors in women's experiences with criminal justice, and also account for some possible solutions.

Relational theory can be especially helpful when designing effective re-integration programs. Theories related to reintegration are central to any discussion of the female incarceration experience and how to address the needs of the population. Reintegration theories can prevent recidivism and better achieve the primary goals of criminal justice action. During Discussion Panel 1 in the NYS Reentry Policy Conference, moderator Miller-Hill (2010) addressed personal perspectives on reintegration. It is crucial that policy makers understand reintegration from the perspective of relational theory. Relational theory can inform the best ways to encourage incarcerated women to create, maintain, and sustain nurturing, honest, caring, and constructive relationships with families. About two-thirds of incarcerated women have children under the age of 18 (Covington, 1998, p. 1). As Blanchette & Taylor (n.d.) point out, "family separation and community isolation, poor quality of life conditions, mental illness, and lack of secure, stable employment are all critical factors in addressing the reintegration needs of women," (p. 1). Theories related to shame, and its impact on the identity of former inmates as they navigate the tricky path of reintegration, can especially help administrators design and oversee programs that can promote personal and community well-being.

At the same time, policy makers need to take into account the widespread phenomenon of abuse -- sexual, spousal, and psychological. From a relational perspective, policy would lead to the creation of programs designed with the needs of the formerly abused in mind. Women who encounter criminal justice before they encounter social work or psychological intervention need to develop lasting and trust-based relationships with therapists. This can begin in the prison context. When trust evolves between the incarcerated women and therapists, the integration back to the community can be more seamless and less problematic. Martinez (2010) also proposes that role accumulation theory can help administrators design programs to encourage healthy role development in their female populations. Role integration theory will fit in well with the advocacy programs that were addressed in the Conference. More research is needed, though, to clarify how role integration theory can inform specific policy measures. As Martinez (2010) states, "little is known about the underlying rationale and process of directing former prisoners into and selecting positive social roles to reduce criminality, increase community safety, and lead them on a pro-social path," (p. 139). Therefore, future research can investigate the intervention methods that can be used to foster strong and healthy role identity. Most likely, role integration theory can be applied to the development of mentoring and role modeling programs that are useful during the prisoner reintegration stage.

Public administrators also need a comprehensive rehabilitation theory related to non-violent, especially drug-related, crimes. It is crucial that administrators take into consideration the fact that "women are most likely to be incarcerated for a drug-related crime" (Bloom, Owen & Covington, 2004). Most women are in prison for non-violent crimes, a reality that must ultimately inform a more sensible drug policy. Administrators and policy makers can frame drug treatment intervention programs as the means by which to prevent female incarceration. Drug treatment and awareness programs can also become the means by which to most sensibly reintegrate female inmates to their respective communities. Drug policies need to become more relaxed, though, before administrators can function effectively and address drug-related crimes as psychological and sociological, rather than as criminological, problems.