Slavery's legacy of racism and cultural resistance in North America

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Consequences of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in America Today The practice of slavery and the associated barbaric Trans-Atlantic slave trade left behind a violent legacy. Virtually bestial cruelty was the chief condition which shaped the nature of this forcible immigration to the Americas, via ships along the trans-Atlantic route, to work in the plantations of the rich European colonizers whose sole concern was profit maximization. The concentration of authority in slave owners’ hands facilitated the infliction of disproportionate degrees of sexual and physical abuse which, in several ways, has influenced the Black American community’s development (The Transatlantic Slave Trade 1). Slave traders’ and owners’ abuse of slaves had a characteristic sexual element, with rape being a common occurrence. They had no regard for kinship, especially children’s paternity – a child’s status would be the same as that of his/her mother; who fathered them made no difference at all. Further, the plantation owners behaved with these overworked, unpaid laborers as though they were nothing but chattel. Avoidance of, and resistance to, owners’ barbarism, constituted the defining elements of Africans’ reactions to forcible migration and slavery; they strove to avoid physical maltreatment by adopting the approaches of escape, accommodation, and even aggressive revolt (Behrendt, Stephen 1). Another rebellious act to resist the enforced European norms was preserving and adapting their native cultural forms in order for responding appropriately to the enslaved community’s new needs. In contrast to previous slavery systems, the Americans resorted to racial distinctions for ensuring the bondage of African slaves (The Transatlantic Slave Trade 1). The phenomenon was different in the Latin American region, where it was characterized by more complex racial stratification; within the North American region, however, any individual with identifiable African ancestry, irrespective of the amount of \\\"white\\\" blood they possessed, was considered a black or Negro or a colored person (The Transatlantic Slave Trade 1). The white society established a race-based caste system, rendering racism and race-based attitudes a fundamental, permanent component of North America’s culture (The Transatlantic Slave Trade 1). The slaves of North American belonged to numerous ethnic populations and starkly different backgrounds. But despite the multitude of identity markers, some few ethnicities, languages (normally in creolized and pidgin forms), religions, and cultural forms were sustainable and, thus, maintained. These were occasionally altered and even exaggerated in the course of slaves’ adaption to their new environment and circumstance. The primary outcome of the forced African immigration in the slavery age was the creation of an \\\"American\\\" society (neither \\\"African” nor “European\\\"), founded in the economic and political context of domination, subjugation and discrimination. The African’s contributed immensely to their novel society through their language, dance, music, art, cuisine, and religion. The most salient aspect was the lasting sense of kinship among African-Americans owing to the white racism they encountered. Profound Regret from American States On February 24, 2007, the House Joint Resolution Number 728 was passed by Virginia State’s General Assembly, which acknowledged \\\"with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians\\\" (House Joint Resolution No. 728 1). This resolution’s passage made Virginia the first US state whose government admitted to its involvement in the slavery practice. Its passage immediately followed the 400-year anniversary of Jamestown, the foremost of the permanent English colonies to have survived in the newly-formed United States. Further, Jamestown is famous for being one among the foremost slave ports in the Americas (House Joint Resolution No. 728 1). Bob Riley, Alabaman governor, signed a resolution on May 31, 2007, wherein \\\"profound regret\\\" was conveyed for the state’s participation in the slavery practice, along with an apology for the wrongs committed and their lasting impacts, making Alabama the 4th state to issue a formal slavery apology (the other three states were Virginia (previously mentioned), North Carolina and Maryland) (Fox News 1). On July 30 of the following year came the American House of Representatives’ resolution which apologized for slavery and the resultant discriminatory regulations passed, referring to \\\"fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and Jim Crow\\\" segregation. The Senate issued its own apology on June 18, 2009, condemning the \\\"fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery\\\" (Fears, Darryl 1), an act that the then-President Obama appreciated. Impact of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in America today Economic exploitation Regardless of the impacts of the slave trade on the African continent, the slaves undoubtedly contributed majorly to the New World’s economic growth, and to compensating labor shortages. Europeans’ colonization of America was accompanied by new diseases which destroyed native populations, thereby decreasing the native labor pool. Furthermore, hardly any European migrated to work as a member of the labor force (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). The above phenomenon was especially true in case of the Caribbean and Brazil, wherein Africans grew in number to become the largest racial group. Certain areas in North America also witnessed this, though the white population outnumbered Africans here (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). African slaves proved to be a particularly crucial source of labor in \\\"plantations\\\" which cropped up all over the New World beginning from Brazil, and stretching to the Caribbean islands and southern North American states (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). This plantation system has its origins in the medieval age, in Cyprus, Crete and other Mediterranean islands. At the time, the system was definitely rather complex, considering the islands produced sugar for export in an era where Europe largely focused on meeting its everyday food needs (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). However, these islands also relied on slaves. And the establishment of the plantation system in America made African slaves the plantation workforce’s backbone. African slaves’ prolonged economic exploitation immensely impacted the history of the New World. Most importantly, it led to the creation of profound social divisions between the poor blacks and the rich whites. Its repercussions echo in modern-day America, several decades following emancipation (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). The aforementioned black-white gulf was reinforced through the determination of whites to segregate the communities, disapproving of inter-marriages and hesitating when it came to liberating next-generation blacks from slavery (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). The above situation was highly unlike the conditions experienced by African slaves sent to Middle Eastern countries, which encouraged slave liberation and did not frown upon inter-marriage. Nevertheless, one can witness a highly positive element in such a dire situation: the Africans’ creativity that gradually led to the development of novel identities through the fusion of traditional African customs with New World experiences and European elements. In spite of all the misery endured during the slave era, this would constitute an immense cultural enrichment, contributing to the contemporary era’s global culture (Dr. Hardy, Will 1). Political and Social Discrimination JOBS Jobs and unemployment · Black Americans’ official rate of unemployment is roughly eight percent, double the rate for white Americans. · According to 2003 statistics, only half the African American population of New York City was employed. · Estimates for the year 2002 revealed a quarter of African Americans in the country unemployed round the year · As per 2004 figures, less than 39 percent of African American youth (age group: 16 to 24 years) were employed (this may be contrasted to 59 percent (whites) and 60 percent (Hispanic)) (Perlo, A 1). Several million individual rendered jobless owing to the absence of appropriate jobs haven’t been recorded as jobless within official estimates (Perlo, A 1). Jobs and Earnings: African American men earn 70 percent of the earning of their white counterparts (i.e., 17000 dollars less), whilst females earn 83 percent of their white peer’s earnings (i.e., 6000 dollars less). 1998 statistics reveal that in case of males aged between 24 and 40 years whose maximum educational level was high school graduation, average income in case of White Americans was $33,123, whilst that in case of African Americans was 26,223 dollars (Perlo, A 1). Causes of lower pay and lack of jobs: Overt Discrimination · According to highly conservative standards for the year 1999, roughly two million females and members of minority communities suffered job discrimination, which is much less than the figures displayed by other researches (Perlo, A 1). · Research in numerous cities reveals decreased likelihood of job candidates with ‘Black-sounding’ names receiving interview calls as compared to candidates having ‘normal’ names (Perlo, A 1). · Findings of an academic research reveal that even without explicit proof of criminal history, organizations generally avoid African-American youth (Perlo, A 1). Criminal Justice System The following fundamental facts are widely-known: More than a million Blacks, including an eighth of the youth Black male population of America, are in prison at a time; further, almost 33 percent of African-American males encounter the crime justice system at some or other point of time in their lives (Perlo, A 1). A number of research works reveal the disproportionate likelihood of stops, arrests, convictions and prison sentences among African Americans as compared to others, despite similar criminality rates. This is especially true when it comes to drug arrests; researchers indicate that White Americans and Blacks are equally likely to dabble in illegal drugs (Perlo, A 1). These expenses, thus, fall disproportionately harder on the overall African American community (Perlo, A 1). The problem of Racism That American society created and maintained racial distinctions for ensuring slaves’ bondage is an established fact (The Transatlantic Slave Trade 1). Racism continues to prevail in contemporary American society with a large number of citizens failing to realize that the responsibility of eradicating racism ought not to be shouldered only by the White population. In fact, whites as well as blacks ought to shoulder this responsibility. Though the slavery practice is perhaps at the heart of Black Americans’ consequent conceptualizations, African enslavement largely has an economic basis. The rich men of Europe who were responsible for shaping national policy all through the course of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade era believed in the ideology of ‘mercantilism’ (centralization of policy pursuits around economic wealth and military strength) (Eltis, David 1). The colonies they ruled over were considered agricultural and mineral sources, which were to be exploited to serve the home country. Employing their fellow countrymen was unsustainably costly and detrimental to the labor supply in their home countries. But, Africans were \\\"available in large numbers at prices that made plantation agriculture in the Americas profitable\\\". Additionally, it has been contended that, alongside the economic motivations at the root of American slavery, the Europe’s world schemas contributed significantly to African enslavement. This view holds that Europeans’ in-group when it came to meting out humane behavior only encompassed the subcontinent; natives and Africans were defined via a more localized ‘insider’ definition (Eltis, David 1). Neither representation is inherently superior, but the Europeans’ technological superiority helped disseminate the principle that a non-European was ‘enslavable’. The capacity of disseminating this schematic worldview helped Europeans impose a societal contract, rendering three hundred years of the African slave trade and slavery practice ethical (Eltis, David 1). This social contract’s dissolution during the 1900s resulted in abolitionism, but it is contended that elimination of obstacles to the \\\"insider status\\\" represents a rather slow process, which is still not complete (2017). Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database figures reveal that from 1626 to 1860, over 470,000 African slaves were forced to migrate to America from their home continent. Before the American Civil War, 8 serving presidents were slave owners, a practice the nation’s constitution itself protected. Slaves were sources of wealth generation for the privileged white population, with roughly 25 percent of Southern families holding slaves before the American Civil War. The American census for the year 1860 reveals that in the Southern ‘slave states’, there were around 385,000 White American slave-owners in an overall white population of roughly seven million. Solution to Racism According to Americans, everybody needs to work together solve this issue; further, African-Americans needn’t strive harder to put an end to racism as compared to others (PBS 1). No improvement has been witnessed in the gap in perception of social progress between Whites and Blacks. Six out of ten citizens believe everyone ought to be made responsible to bring about race relation improvements; 22 percent feel Whites are to bear this responsibility, whilst 7 percent believe the solution lies with African-Americans themselves (PBS 1). Fifty percent of citizens believe blacks as well as whites are equally likely to advance in modern-day society (PBS 1). The above figure is not very different from the figures established by a New York Times/CBS News poll conducted in 1997 (46 percent). As opposed to twenty years back when 43 percent of citizens believed whites enjoyed a better likelihood for progress, currently, 41 percent of citizens believe so (PBS 1). Further, a scant four percent believe Blacks enjoy an advantage when it comes to advancing (the 1997 figure was 5 percent). Here too, individuals belonging to different races have different views. Fifty-four percent of whites believe white as well as black residents enjoy a fair chance of progress, fifty percent of Latinos and sixty-five percent of Blacks believe whites enjoy an advantage when it comes to progressing in modern society (PBS 1). Recommendation All parties are responsible for addressing the issue of racism. Individuals hailing from all creeds and racial backgrounds need to strive resolutely towards changing perception. America’s government needs to raise its voice strongly against the issue of racism, condemning social groups that are believed to be pro-racism. Further, the government’s legislative wing needs to enact legislations favoring racial equality and unity, besides discussing historically-perpetrated racial injustices with an aim to mend old wrongs. African-Americans residing under deplorable conditions need to be provided reparative benefits. Affordable Medicare, decent housing facility, free educational grants and other federal measures ought to be prioritized for African-Americans identified as ‘low-income’ individuals. Organizations need to be encouraged to hire disadvantaged African-Americans and offer benefits like tax reliefs. Slavery’s effects are undoubtedly being felt even to this day. The African American community’s members need to stop perceiving themselves as victims and make the most of their reformed, rich culture with its towering legacy that has made immense impacts in the fields of language, music, religion, art, dance, and cuisine. The most important thing is: they need to utilize their enduring community sense as the stepping stone to influencing US society. Great personalities such as Martin Luther King Jr. made significant contributions to emancipation and currently, awareness levels and voices opposing racism are much stronger as compared to the silent race-based gimmicks some play. All citizens need to contribute, particularly individuals victimized by racists.