Correlation Between Pre-School and Kindergarten Success

¶ … Preschool and Kindergarten Success

The Influence of Preschool Participation on Educational Outcomes in Kindergarten

Increasingly, young children in the U.S. are attending and participating in preschool programs. Parents as well as others perceive preschool educational opportunities as facilitating later positive educational outcomes for children. The research conducted within this study was focused on determining the degree to which preschool participation is associated with the attainment of successful educational outcomes for children during their kindergarten years. The study was conducted via the use of the heuristic research method in which six studies were examined for the purposes of determining the association between preschool and educational outcomes in kindergarten.

The Influence of Preschool Participation on Educational Outcomes in Kindergarten

Introduction

During the last four decades, there has been increasing attention directed to the education of children who are under five (Barnett & Boocock, 1998). With ongoing changes in family structures and lifestyles, the number of children who are cared for by someone other than a parent has steadily increased. On the basis of information provided by Barnett and Boocock, estimates suggest that almost 65% of mothers with preschool children are in the labor force. In 1995, 59% of all preschool-aged children within the U.S. were in preschool care and education programs on a regular basis, including 67% of three-year-olds and 77% of four-year-olds (Hofferth, Shauman, Henke, & West, 1998). According to West, Denton, and Germino-Hausken (1998), results from a recent U.S. Department of Education (DOE) study found that 80% of all children beginning kindergarten in the fall of 1998 had been in child care on a regular basis, and about half continued to be in child care before or after school.

As such information suggests, currently, the vast majority of children within the U.S. spend much of their day away from their parents, with most attending a center-based preschool program prior to kindergarten. As reported by Yarosz and Barnett (2001), in 1999, center-based preschool programs are frequent attended by preschoolers throughout the U.S., with program participation at 70% at age four and 45% at age three. As described by Yarosz and Barnett, center-based programs represent those programs labeled most frequently as child care, preschool, day care, and nursery school and operating under a number of different auspices, including churches, independent non-profits, for-profits, public schools, and Head Start. According West, Hausken, and Collins (1993), regardless of how preschool programs are described and labeled, most parents perceive such programs as educational. As further explained by Yarosz and Barnett, as income and parental education increase, there is an increase in the rate of enrollment and participation of children in preschools. This finding has been found to hold true even thought there is greater government support for programs targeting children in low-income families. Additionally, as reported by Yarosz and Barnett, findings have suggested that parents are less likely to enroll children under three in center-based programs, as parent tend to view infant and toddler care as less likely to influence later educational outcomes.

As well, the implementation of preschool programs in public schools has recently increased. According to information provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2003), during the 2000-2001 school year, there were approximately 56,400 public elementary schools, 19,900 (35%) of which had prekindergarten classes Among the 19,900 public schools with prekindergarten classes during the 2000-2001school year, as reported by NCES the likelihood of elementary schools offering prekindergarten classes was found to increase with school sizes while schools located in urban areas were more likely than those in urban fringe/large town schools or rural/smalltown schools to have prekindergarten classes. Approximately 822,000 children were found to be enrolled in such prekindergarten classes offered within public schools.

As young children are increasingly enrolled and participating in various forms of non-parental education outside of the home, there has been a growing interest since the 1960s in determining the degree to which preschool programs influence children's learning, development and later educational outcomes. A particular concern raised by those interested in the influences of preschool participation focuses on the degree to which inequalities in early care and education may be responsible for much of the inequality in later educational outcomes within the U.S. (Entwisle, Alexander, & Olson, 2000). As also noted by Entwisle et al., concerns have also been raised regarding the degree to which parents may not be aware of the potential of their childcare/preschool decisions to either adversely or positively influence their child's development and later educational outcomes. Overall, a persistent question that has been raised in relation to preschool programs is whether such programs are beneficial to children in terms of later educational success beginning in kindergarten and throughout the remainder of their experiences in primary education programs.

On the basis of the ongoing questions that have emerged regarding the benefits of and potential association between preschool and later educational outcomes, this research report will attempt to address and clarify the influence of preschool on educational success in kindergarten. In addition, the research will attempt to identify factors that have been found to influence the degree to which preschool participation impacts successful educational outcomes in kindergarten. Factors under consideration are child characteristics, program characteristics and social/environmental characteristics.

Research Methods

The research methods selected for implementation within this study were based on the overall purpose of the study: to determine the degree to which young children's participation in preschool influences and is associated with positive educational outcomes in kindergarten. A brief overview of the research design utilized within the study as well as the research procedures employed will be provided.

The research design selected for utilization in the study is one that allows for both the qualitative and quantitative exploration and analysis of information. This research design is that which is known as historiography, which provides a systematic process of the study of prior historical research (Schumacher & McMillan, 1993). While there is no single or unique definable description of historiography, as described by Schumacher and McMillan, the steps involved in conducting historical research are essentially the same as those in other types of research. The first step implemented within historical research is that which involves the identification of a research problem, topic, or subject, followed by the formulation of significant questions to be addressed. Historical records are then used as secondary data sources to systematically collect, evaluate and synthesize the source materials for the purpose of addressing the research question(s) under investigation.

As explained by Schumacher and McMillan (1993), in order to objectively evaluate the data obtained, both internal and external criteria are applied to establish the validity, credibility, and usefulness of source materials. The application of external criteria helps establish validity while application of internal criteria helps establish meaning. As explained by Schumacher and McMillan, the final steps of historical research include analyzing and interpreting evidence from each source, synthesizing information from the various sources, making generalizations, formulating conclusions, and confirming or disconfirming hypotheses, if hypotheses testing is included within the research plan.

For the purposes of the study, it was decided that the external criteria guiding the examination of historical records would include the following:

Only research studies found in historical records, including journals, periodicals and reports from reliable organizations (e.g., DOE), conducted within the last 5 years would be included for analysis within the study.

Only research studies found in historical records, including journals, periodicals and reports from reliable organizations (e.g., DOE) that examined the impact of preschool on kindergarten outcomes would be included within the study.

Only 6 studies would be included for examination within the current study.

It was also determined that the internal criteria to be applied within the study would include the following:

When examining historical records selected for inclusion within the study, the researcher would maintain objectivity and report any negative outcomes as well as positive found within the research reviewed.

The researcher would adhere to the questionnaire developed for data collection purposes and would not include other information found within the studies selected for examination to insure that the focus of the study remained on target throughout the data collection and analysis process.

For the purposes of the study, a questionnaire was developed to guide the researcher in the examination of historical records selected for inclusion in the study. The questionnaire is presented below. While the questionnaire has not been subjected to pilot testing in order to determine its' validity and reliability, it was constructed using the current literature discussed earlier on children's participation in preschool programs within the U.S. Therefore, it is believed that the instrument retains face validity, as defined by Babbie (2001), in that it was designed to measure what it is suppose to measure - the association between participation in preschool and educational outcomes obtained in kindergarten

Influences of Preschool Participation:

Historical Records Questionnaire

What is the date of the study?

Does the study include information on preschool participation as it relates ot educational outcomes obtained in kindergarten?

What was the purpose of the study?

What types of preschool programs were studied?

What types of research methods were employed?

What were the findings of the study? What types of reported educational outcomes were obtained by children in kindergarten?

Results of the Study

The results of the study are presented and organized on the basis of key findings determined from the examination of the six research studies included for analysis within the study. Key findings include those on the influence of preschool on cognitive and social development as impacting educational outcomes,

Influence on Cognitive and Social Development

The results of a study conducted by Peisner-Feinberg, Burchinal, Clifford, Culkin, Howes, Kagan and Yazejian (2001) helped to clearly document the influence of preschool participation on educational outcomes in kindergarten and beyond. The study was a part of the Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes in Child Care Centers study has been examining the quality of preschool settings and its relation to child developmental and educational outcomes by following children from preschool through elementary school in eight states since 1993. The sample used in the study consisted of 183 classrooms randomly selected from a total of 401. The children participating in these preschool classrooms were followed for a period of 5 years, with the analysis sample include 733 children in preschool year 1, 499 in preschool year 2, 2399 in kindergarten and 345 in second grade. The research methods employed by the researchers consisted of both classroom observation as well as the use of multiple measures intended to measure classroom environment and quality, child cognitive and social outcome measures, child reading and math skills measures, teacher survey, and parent surveys.

The results of the study of relevance to this study included the following:

High-quality child care has a long-term effect on children's language skills, math skills, and attention skills through second grade. In addition, children in high-quality settings in preschool showed greater sociability and fewer problem behaviors in second grade. These benefits are even more pronounced for at-risk children, particularly in the areas of math skills and problem behaviors.

Different classroom practices such as the smoothness of transitions between activities in the classroom, the provision of a safe and respectful climate for children, the amount of cross-disciplinary connection between subjects, the social support for student learning and student engagement, are related to children's academic and language skills through second grade.

Close teacher-child relationships (which are characterized by high levels of teacher sensitivity and responsiveness to children) are related to better language skills, attention skills, and social skills, and fewer behavioral problems through second grade.

Similar findings were reported by Campbell, Pungello, Miller-Johnson, Burchinal & Ramey (2001) in their study of the Abecedarian Project. The study was initiated more than twenty years ago and has followed over one hundred low-income children from infancy to young adulthood. As reported by the researchers, of the 111 infants originally involved in the study, 57 were assigned to an early intervention child care program and 54 received care in some other setting. Each child in the early intervention program had an individualized program of educational activities which was designed to enhance social, emotional, and cognitive development. Children in the program received at least five years of this specialized care until they left the program for kindergarten.

On the basis of ongoing measurement, the researchers reported that children who participated in the intervention program had higher cognitive test scores from the toddler years through the age of 21, as well as higher academic achievement in reading and math from the primary grades through young adulthood. In addition, the children from the intervention program completed more years of education and were more likely to attend a four-year college than the children who did not participate in the intervention program.

Influence of Home and Parental Factors

Findings from the NCES Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey, as reported in the National Education Goals Panel (NEGP) Monthly (2001), have suggested that there is an achievement gap that can be identified as early as the fall of the a child's first year in kindergarten. For the purposes of the study, a sample of 22,000 children from 1000 public and private kindergartens who had previously participated in preschool participated in the study. One-on-one assessments were conducted with children and parents were administered questionnaires as were teachers and school administrators. The set of measures used by NCES were developed by NEGP and covered the five dimensions of development: physical well-being and motor development; social and emotional development; approaches toward learning; language usage; and cognition and general knowledge.

As reported within the NEGP Monthly (2001), the study found that kindergartners' levels of achievement vary depending on the students' age, family type, parents' education, primary language spoken in the home, and race/ethnicity. The study did not find a significant difference between boys' and girls' developmental status at school entry. As noted in the report, this finding is interesting in that previous studies have shown relatively large differences in the academic success of boys and girls at the fourth grade level. The new data suggests, then, that this gender gap is the result of something, which begins during the elementary school years.

The NCES study is important for inclusion within this study as it helps to document that the degree to which participation in preschool may influence a child's educational outcomes in kindergarten may be influenced by critical factors other than the child's preschool participation. If the findings of the NCES study were taken at face value only, one could assume that preschool participation does little to aid children in readiness for kindergarten. However, the findings clearly point to the need to control for factors such as students' age, family type, parents' education, primary language spoken in the home, and race/ethnicity in determining the impact of preschool participation on educational outcomes. While the quality of preschool experience may be extensive, if other factors operate more strongly in influencing educational outcomes, such factors must also be taken into account when considering the overall impact of preschool participation. As well, the findings from the NCES study suggest that policy makers must begin to concentrate on students' age, family type, parents' education, primary language spoken in the home, and race/ethnicity when designing and developing preschool programs in an effort to better prepare children for kindergarten.

Influence on Long-Term Educational Outcomes

Barnett (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 37 studies conducted on the relationship of preschool participation and long-term educational outcomes to further examine whether prior research findings that had suggested that long-term positive educational outcomes were the result of socialization more so than preschool history. Such studies had concluded that the effects of preschool participation fade-out over time and that socialization become a better predictor of educational success. The 37 studies selected for review were selected for inclusion if they met four criteria: (1) children entered the program as preschoolers (in Head Start this could include some five-year-olds prior to the availability of kindergarten); (2) the program served economically disadvantaged children; (3) at least one measure of achievement or school success was collected at or beyond age eight (Grade 3); and, (4) the research design identified treatment and no-treatment groups from program records. As explained by Barnett, the requirement for follow-up through third grade allowed sufficient time to observe the fade-out in effects that is widely believed to occur.

As reported by Barnett (2001), all 37 studies represented research of educational interventions, although five investigated model programs that provided services through full-day child care. The studies can be divided into two categories: one for small-scale research models, the other for large-scale public programs. In 15 studies, researchers developed model programs to study the effects of controlled treatments. In 22 other studies, researchers investigated the effects of on-going, large-scale public programs: 10 studied Head Start programs, eight examined public school programs, and four studied a mix of Head Start and public school programs.

As reported by Barnett (2001), the findings of the study were mixed as to long-term effects of preschool on IQ. Some found that IQ effects were sustained at least until school entry while others found that the estimated effects on IQ were moderate. Still others did not measure changes in IQ. As concluded by Barnett, on the basis of the findings, it appeared as though changes and long-term outcomes associated with IQ were based more on the intensity of the preschool program in which children participated, suggesting that very early intensive preschool interventions may have more fundamental or general effects on the cognitive development of children, particular those living in poverty.

In relation to achievement, as reported by Barnett (2001), the long-term effects of preschool participation on achievement also varied considerably across studies based on type of preschool program under investigation. Overall, the findings suggested that preschool participation influences long-term positive achievement outcomes. As concluded by Barnett, much of the variation in findings regarding long-term effects on achievement across programs may be best accounted for by differences in research methods and procedures employed within the different studies. According to Barnett, detailed analyses indicated that in many studies the seeming fade-out in effects on achievement was influenced by flawed research methods.

As reported by Barnett (2001), school progress and placement were also variables which were considered in the 37 studies on the influence of preschool on educational outcomes. According to the researcher, school progress and placement were primarily measured by the percentage of children repeating grades, given special education services, and graduating from high school. Barnett reported that the estimated effects on school progress and placement are consistently positive and overwhelmingly statistically significant.

While Barnett's (2001) meta-analysis does not solely focus on kindergarten educational outcomes, such outcomes are considered in the analysis of long-term benefits of preschool participation. Positive outcomes occurring in IQ, achievement and school progress/placement, while examined in terms of children's long-term progress within school, are also representative of attributes one could be expected to be associated with a child's experience within kindergarten.

Disadvantaged Children

The findings reported by Reynolds (1999) from a study conducted on the long-term effects of Child Parent Centers (CPC) in Chicago provide an extremely valuable addition to knowledge regarding early education for disadvantaged children. Reynolds conducted a longitudinal study with a sample of over 1500 children. The study focused on estimating the effects of a Title I funded half-day preschool and extended elementary program from ages three to nine operated by the Chicago public schools. Separate estimates were provided for the preschool and elementary components and effects are estimated through age 21. As reported by Reynolds, when family economic disadvantage is controlled for, CPC preschool participants had significantly lower rates of special education placement, grade retention, juvenile arrest, and arrest for a violent offense. They also had significantly higher achievement test scores in reading and math through age 15 and a higher rate of high school completion. Reported effect sizes, according to Reynolds, were in the 0.20 to 0.50 range, with larger effects found for children in the highest poverty neighborhoods.