Tall Buddies: Peer-Assisted Learning Initiative

Tall Buddies: Peer-Assisted Learning Initiative for Elementary Schools

Using a Peer-Assisted Learning Program to Help Both Young Tutors and Tutees Achieve Improved Academic Outcomes

The ability to read well contributes to virtually all other academic pursuits, and it is little wonder that there has been a great deal of attention paid to this aspect of education in recent years. In this regard, Otaiba, Fuchs, Fuchs et al. (2001) emphasize that, "The problems associated with limited reading competence are serious. Students with poor reading skills have lower self-esteem, pose greater discipline problems and are less likely to complete school than more skillful readers" (p. 15). One initiative that has been shown to be highly effective in helping young students with reading problems achieve improved ability across the board is peer-assisted learning (pers. obs.; Otaiba et al., 2001). According to Dufrene, Duhon, Gilbertson and Noell (2005), "Peer tutoring has been shown to increase significantly students' time spent in academic instruction and engagement and student outcome. Additionally, peer tutoring has been used effectively to address individual needs in remedial programs for at-risk and mildly disabled students" (p. 74). Peer-assisted learning initiatives are especially useful alternative instructional approaches because they take advantage of a relatively abundant resource (i.e., students) and place comparatively limited demands on scarcer resources (i.e., educators); moreover, such programs provide a framework in which students can learn cooperative work skills in addition to the academic skills that are being targeted (Dufrene et al., 2005). The beneficial outcomes of such peer tutoring programs on students' reading performance have been previously documented (Dufrene et al., 2005). While a wide range of potential positive outcomes are possible for students engaging in peer tutoring programs, academic progress is typically the area that has received the most attention; however, besides gains in scholastic achievement, researchers have suggested that there are a number of other beneficial student outcomes that result from peer-tutoring initiatives, including improved academic self-efficacy and persistence (Hartman, Mencke, Uribe & Xu, 2001). These authors add that, "Tutoring also brings a social component to the learning process, given that educators now believe more effective learning takes place when there are two or more people involved" (Hartman et al., 2001, p. 22).

In reality, though, such learning approaches are not new, and some of the earliest research out of which such cooperative learning techniques were developed goes back to early 1900s, and the foundation of peer tutoring can be traced to Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster in late eighteenth century) or perhaps even earlier (Falchikov, 2001). This study provides a critical review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning peer-assisted learning in general and how these programs have been used to help young readers in particular and a case study of the effectiveness of this initiative at an elementary school that provides services at-risk 6th graders due to emotional, social or behavioral problems and 1st grade struggling readers. The product of this study will be a best practices guide to help educators at all levels identify which peer-assisted technique might be best suited for their individual needs, how to implement it, and how to monitor its effectiveness to ensure long-term success.

Importance of the Study

Today, many teachers are overwhelmed by the special challenges they face. Not only are there escalating numbers of students who are categorized as emotionally or behaviorally disordered and escalating demands on teachers to fill nonteaching roles in children's lives, teachers today are faced with an increasingly diverse set of learners in any given classroom. For example, Fuchs, Fuchs and Saenz (2005) emphasize that, "American schools of the 21st century face the challenge of educating the world's most diverse student body. This diversity is reflected in variations in achievement, socioeconomic status, cultural background, and linguistic background" (p. 231). Further, current estimates suggest that more than 2 million students currently come from non-English-speaking backgrounds and that by the year 2020, this number will reach 6 million with respect to differences in linguistic background (Fuchs et al., 2005). There is also a glaring need to address individual differences in capacity among an increasingly diverse set of learners in the general population, with many educators turning to alternatives to whole-class instruction with the common feature of these techniques being that they involve peer-assisted learning (Keogh & Speece, 1996). It is this researcher's belief that helping troubled 6th grade students feel capable, connected and contributing members of a school will help decrease behavioral problems and increase students' self-esteem. This belief is congruent with Ma (2003) who reports that young students' sense of belonging to their school plays an important role in achieving successful academic outcomes. The principal investigator also believes that by training the 6th grade students how to tutor low achieving 1st graders will have a chance to make accelerated growth. With the Tall Buddy program, three fundamental positive outcomes are possible for the 6th graders: (a) behavior can improve second, (b) student self-esteem increases (which must happen if we want students too behave more responsibly) and achieve more academically and - an improvement in reading skills.

Beyond the foregoing valuable contributions, yet another important outcome of Tall Buddy tutoring is to improve the reading skills of both the Tall Buddies and the Small Buddies to ensure that all students become proficient readers. First graders who have difficulty in reading quickly fall behind their classmates. First-grade teachers can predict with some confidence, that those student in their class with considerable reading deficits by the end of the school year will likely have long-lasting challenges in reading in their school years. Indeed, as Paterson and Elliott (2006) emphasize, "As students progress from elementary school through middle school to high school, they confirm their attitude toward reading. Many high school readers who have struggled with reading along the way carry deeply entrenched negative beliefs about the reading process and, consequently, construct barriers to protect themselves against feelings of failure. These attitudes push reading achievement into a downward spiral" (p. 378).

All teachers involved should select academic measures to use to track student's reading levels both before Tall Buddies begins and during the tutoring program. Also it is important to note that when a Tall Buddy is chosen to participate in the program that the privilege is non-revocable meaning that their position is not held over their head and threatened to be ended due to poor behavior, not turning in homework or completing assignments. It takes time to break habits that have been in process for years. This researcher believes in progress toward the behavior wanted, not perfection.

Section 2: Review of Literature

Introduction.

According to Ehly and Topping (1998), "Peer tutoring is where tutor and tutee are clear about their respective and separate roles and goals. However, peer-assisted learning (PAL) also encompasses peer education and counseling, and peer modeling, monitoring, and assessment" (p. xiii). These authors suggest that many educators may be aware of the general concepts of peer tutoring already; however, reciprocal tutoring, class-wide tutoring, paired learning methods and the deployment of students with special needs as tutors may be relatively unfamiliar (Ehly & Topping, 1998). This point is also made by Otaiba and her colleagues (2001) who report, "One promising alternative to conventional instructional methods is a collaborative arrangement whereby children work together to support each other's learning. Research demonstrates that in the elementary grades, children's reading competence can improve when they work collaboratively on structured learning activities" (p. 15). Using such peer-assisted learning approaches, groups of young students are able to operate on different levels of curricula, using alternative instructional procedures; moreover, teachers can create and simultaneously implement different lessons to address a greater range of individual learning needs (Otaiba et al., 2001).

Despite the increased interest in peer-assisted learning initiatives, there are still many things that remain better described than understood in the scholarly literature concerning tutoring and mentoring, and on which further research needs to be conducted (Falchikov, 2001). There is, however, a growing body of research concerning the effectiveness of peer-assisted learning with research studies having been conducted with students with mild disabilities enrolled in general education classes and from studies carried out in separate special education classes for students with severe disabilities (Fister, Mathot-Buckner, Mcdonnell & Thorson, 2001).

In particular, peer tutoring has been extensively examined as an alternative learning strategy for providing students with severe disabilities with instruction that is tailored to their individual needs (Fister et al., 2001). Research studies have repeatedly demonstrated that students without disabilities can be effective in teaching a wide range of academic and developmental skills to this group of students; however, there remains a paucity of studies that have specifically examined the effectiveness of these strategies in meeting the educational of students with severe disabilities in general education classes (Fister et al., 2001). The review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning peer-assisted learning for this study provides the background and an overview of peer tutoring in general and the potential benefits that accrue to such initiatives in particular, followed by a discussion of implementation considerations for such initiatives. Methods for evaluating and monitoring the effectiveness of peer-assisted learning programs are discussed as well, followed by a summary of the literature review.

Background and Overview.

The growing body of scholarly evidence concerning peer tutoring has been consistent in emphasizing the powerful effects that children can exert on the academic and interpersonal development of their classmates and/or other students (Ehly & Topping, 1998). For example, Bloom (1984) reported early on that one-on-one tutoring by a fully skilled peer was more effective than both conventional (i.e., teachers' lecturing) and mastery learning (i.e., student- regulated) methods of teaching. Across several replications of academic content and student age levels, Bloom (1984) reported that peer tutoring programs produced effect sizes on the order of 2 standard deviations above the mean of the control group (i.e., students receiving conventional lecture-based instruction), compared with 1.3 standard deviations for mastery learning (effect sizes larger than.25 of 1 standard deviation were described as educationally significant) (Ehly & Topping, 1998). Likewise, Slavin (1990) even enthuses that, "One-to-one tutoring is the most effective form of instruction known" (emphasis added) (p. 44). Besides these benefits to the tutee, peer tutoring programs have been shown to provide improved academic outcomes when they are used on a same-age, cross-age, and class-wide basis; moreover, many empirical investigations have documented that mutual benefits accrue from the systematic use of peer tutoring programs wherein children who serve as tutors frequently achieve academic gains comparable to those who receive tutorial assistance (Ehly & Topping, 1998).

Generally speaking, peer tutoring programs create alternative teaching arrangements in which students act as instructional agents for one another (Harper, Maheady, & Mallete, 1994). Peer tutoring also provides opportunities for students to discuss content and processes of reading, and the studies to date suggest that specific methods can enhance students ability to monitor their processes and that the social context plays a major role in supporting students understanding of these strategies (Afflerbach, Baumann, Duffy-Hester, Hoffman, McCarthey & Ro, 2000). The potential advantages of peer tutoring programs include providing a framework that allows the teacher to customize instruction to the needs of individual students and to provide a higher number of instructional trials in one-on-one or small group teaching formats (Fister et al., 2001).

This model assigns some of the main sub-processes into one of five categories. The first of these again includes organizational or structural features of the learning interaction, such as the need and press inherent in peer-assisted learning toward increased time on task (t.o.t.) and time engaged with task (t.e.t.), the need for both helper and helped to elaborate goals and plans, the individualization of learning and immediacy of feedback possible within the one-on-one situation, and the sheer excitement and variety of a different kind of learning interaction. To help determine what specific type of peer-tutoring is involved, Falchikov provides the algorithm in Figure __ below.

Figure ____. Varieties of peer tutoring.

Source: Falchikov, 2001, p. 8.

From a cognitive perspective, peer-assisted learning alternatives involve both conflict and challenge; they also involve support and scaffolding from the more competent other participant, within the so-called "Zone of Proximal Development" of both the tutor and the tutee (Harrison, 2001, p. 157). According to this author, "The cognitive demands upon the helper in terms of detecting, diagnosing, and correcting errors and misconceptions is substantial - and herein lies much of the cognitive exercise and benefit for the helper" (Harrison, 2001, p. 157).

Peer-assisted learning also places heavy demands upon the communication skills of both helper and helped, but in so doing these initiatives also serve to develop those skills. For all participants, they might never have truly grasped a concept until they had to explain it to another, embodying and crystallizing thought into language. The affective component of peer-assisted learning can also prove very powerful. A trusting relationship with a peer who does not occupy a position of authority might well facilitate self-disclosure of ignorance and misconception, thereby enabling subsequent diagnosis and correction (Harrison, 2001). Likewise, modeling of enthusiasm and competence and the simple possibility of a successful outcome by the tutor can influence the self-confidence of the tutee, while a sense of loyalty and accountability to each other might provide the motivation needed to keep the two participants focused and on-task (Harrison, 2001). Previous research that has sought to identify why and how peer-tutoring is effective have pointed to the role of specific interactions in promoting learning during tutoring and other peer-directed small group learning (Adelgais, King & Staffieri, 1998).

Some of the peer interactions that have been identified as being effective are those that support students' engagement in higher order cognitive processes; such interactions include:

Providing elaborated explanations;

Asking appropriate questions (question asking during tutoring has also been found to facilitate learning when the questions are ones that require higher order cognitive processes);

Providing sufficient time for the partner to think before being expected to respond to a question; and,

Using supportive communication skills such as listening attentively to a partner's response and giving feedback and encouragement (Adelgais et al., 1998).

Figure ____ below highlights mechanisms through which both tutor and tutee might gain improved academic outcomes:

Figure ____. Theoretical model of peer-assisted learning.

Source: Harrison, 2001, p. 158.

The following rationales in Table ____ below are identified by Falchikov (2001) for using some same-level peer-tutoring techniques that require little preparation.

Table ____.

Rationales for using some same-level peer-tutoring techniques which require little preparation

Technique

Aim/desired outcome

Cooperative note-taking pairs

To help improve students' note-taking skills

To encourage students to engage with new material

Peer coaching

To strengthen collegial relationships

To increase participant confidence

To foster individual growth in participants

Peer monitoring

To increase level of performance in large classes

To investigate the effects of a group contingency procedure on academic performance

Think-pair-share and Think-pair-square

To encourage students to discuss responses to questions

To encourage participation

Three-step interview

To improve academic achievement

To encourage modeling of effective practice

To provide opportunities for cooperation

To improve social outcomes

Flashcard tutoring

To develop relatively low-level cognitive skills such as learning definitions, memorizing concepts or vocabulary building

Source: Falchikov, 2001, p. 15.

Table ____.

Rationales for using some cross-level peer-tutoring techniques within an institution.

Technique

Definition

Aim/desired outcome

Supplemental Instruction (SI) system whereby 2nd year students act as 'leaders' to help 1st year students in 'at risk' courses

To support students and help reduce drop-out and failure

To encourage cooperative learning

To help students master course content

Mentoring

The relationship between a less experienced person and a more experienced partner who guides and supports the less experienced in a variety of contexts (e.g. higher education; pre-tertiary education; business)

To provide guidance, advice, feedback and support to the less experienced mentee

To improve overall academic performance

To encourage mentee personal growth

Proctoring or Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) system whereby an experienced undergraduate helps a beginner, often under the guidance of an academic

To help a beginner undergraduate to achieve mastery in a particular area

To help beginners become part of the academic culture

To help proctors develop leadership, team building and communication skills

Parrainage

Students counseling students

To provide counseling support to freshmen

To help freshmen adapt to the new educational environment

To improve freshmen's practical problem-solving and study skills

Source: Falchikov, 2001, p. 38.

Table ____.

Rationales for using some group peer-tutoring techniques.

Technique

Aim/desired outcome

Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (RPQ)

To help students comprehend and remember the content of lectures, training sessions, etc.

To facilitate encoding and retrieval of information

Structured Academic Controversy (SAC)

To use disagreement and conflict to aid learning

To increase motivation and involvement of students

The Jigsaw Classroom

To aid integration of children from different ethnic backgrounds and to improve self-esteem and liking for school of minority-group children

To improve pre-service teacher preparation through co-operative learning

To improve students' academic and social learning

Syndicate method

To help cope with differing needs and expectations of international students

Team learning

To strengthen students comfort level with and skills in teamwork

Source: Falchikov, 2001, p. 61.

Implementation.

Traditional procedures used to improve the implementation of peer-tutoring reading program initiatives have been based on direct observation and feedback from consultants; such consultants have provided feedback that has improved the quality of such program implementation in a number of ways.

Recommendations provided by a consultant are contextually specific and appropriate to the needs of the teacher, based on observational and quantitative data;

Consultant are capable of diagnosing and prescribing changes in the teacher's implementation of the peer-tutoring program, using students' pre- and post-peer-tutoring progress information;

consultant can model and show the teacher how to use these same methods and student progress data as a basis for making decisions about program changes and improvements (Arreaga-Mayer, Gavin & Greenwood et al., 2001).

Based on such consultant's assessments, advice, and feedback to teachers, there has frequently been measurable improvements achieved in program quality and student progress (Arreaga-Mayer et al., 2001). Because resources are by definition scarce, though, many schools may not be able to afford such professional assistance and such obligatory consultation service may serve as a roadblock to gaining approval for such initiatives in the first place. Therefore, regardless of the specific type of peer-assisted reading program used, educators are advised to take advantage of the insights and empirical observations that can be gained from past initiatives to this end:

Children need preparation and practice if group work is likely to pay dividends, so immediate success should not be expected. In the case of peer tutoring, tutors need some training.

The structuring of work groups or tutoring pairs by ability and gender is not a crucial concern and may only have a marginal impact.

Successful learning outcomes are correlated with rich interaction; therefore, learners need to be encouraged to talk, deliver instructions, and exchange information and ideas.

Interactions need to be managed to ensure that dialogue takes as many forms as possible: This may involve the pooling of information, agreements, questioning, clarification and elaboration, and giving feedback; it may also involve conflict and argument, disagreements, challenging, and defending. Probably a mix of these interaction types is desirable for maximum benefit. Conflict and argument should, however, be focused on issues and problems, and not be personal and destructive.

Learners need time and encouragement to reflect on their interactive experience. Much of the cognitive work that stimulates learning comes after the interaction has concluded (Ehly & Topping, 1998).

Notwithstanding the observations in number 5 above, a study by Wright (2003) concerning the affective influences on male student attitudes toward peer tutoring found that gender-specific sociolinguistic characteristics as well as cultural pressures impacted male students' willingness to seek academic assistance and may affect the quality of the peer relationship. In addition, as Dufrene and his associates (2005) emphasize, implementation of peer-assisted learning initiatives is typically facilitated by naturally occurring routines and the consequences of participation, which may be sufficient for most students to maintain accurate implementation throughout the program.

The efficacy of any classroom innovation, though, will clearly be mediated by the seriousness of students' learning problems; therefore, based on the increasing diversification of the student population within general education today, it is important to examine effects separately by learner type (Keogh & Speece, 1996). Finally, and just as importantly, teachers themselves also need to become increasingly involved in designing and implementing peer-assisted methods: "Their enthusiasm for successfully deploying such techniques in the classroom crucially depends on our ability to produce and refine creative learning models" (Ehly & Topping, 1998, p. 41).

Evaluation and Monitoring.

As noted above, it is important that all teachers who are involved should select academic measures to use to track student's reading levels both before the Tall Buddies initiative begins as well as during the tutoring program. In addition, careful planning, teacher modeling, and supervision are required to ensure that peer tutor and tutee relationships work (Heller, 1999). According to Heller, "Tutors should never feel that they are being denied the opportunity to read and write connected text at the expense of time spent schooling a peer in a particular area" (Heller, 1999, p. 328). The evaluation of such programs requires feedback from participants and educators alike to ensure that the tutors are receiving the support they require to succeed while simultaneously ensuring that the tutees are receiving the quality of tutoring needed to improve their reading ability. In this regard, Heller advises that, "Peer-tutoring programs work best when the tutors are highly motivated to teach their friends (or younger students) and are rewarded intrinsically for their efforts. At the same time, the tutees should feel good about working with a peer" (1999, p. 328).

In the Fister et al. (2001) peer-tutoring initiative, general education teachers were assigned the following responsibilities for monitoring and oversight with good results being reported from the researchers:

Monitoring peer tutoring activities including student's performance of the tutoring roles;

Providing feedback to the teams about their performance; and,

Providing assistance to teams when questions arose about assigned tasks.

Summary

Because good reading abilities contribute to gains in virtually all other academic pursuits, it just makes good sense to help students become as good as readers as possible during the elementary school years. The review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning peer-assisted learning alternatives showed that peer tutoring can be quite effective in improving other children's reading ability as well as their academic performance in other areas and both the tutor and the tutee achieve academic and social gains as a result of the tutoring experience (Pearson, 2002). These mutual gains have been shown to take place in both reading and mathematics, and with children from different socioeconomic and racial groups; therefore, involving low-socioeconomic children in tutoring programs could increase the value they place on reading and other academic skills. The research also showed, though, that careful evaluation of learner needs is required when designing peer tutoring programs, and in order to be successful, tutoring programs should use tutors who are several years older than tutees, the tutors should be trained and supervised closely, and intervention should be implemented for a relatively long time (Pearson, 2002). On a final note, the research showed that peer-assisted learning techniques are particularly worthwhile for heterogeneous groups of students because it encourages mutual respect and learning among students of various backgrounds and academic abilities (Keogh & Speece, 1996).

Section 3: Procedure

Development, Purpose and Approval of Project

The author is a Curriculum Support Teacher and my Job is to support teachers in raising student achievement. In 2005 I new we had a very difficult group of 5th graders coming into 6th. The fifth grade teachers continually complained about low-test scores due to misbehaving students. I had read a book called Cooperative Discipline by Linda Albert that discussed the importance of relationships with students and that if students feel capable, connected and contributing members of a school very often problem behaviors disappear. Thereafter, I tried to come up with a plan to help the six major behavior problem soon-to-be-6th graders feel capable, connected and contributing members of our school. Thus Tall Buddies was born.

I knew I could maintain a group of 10 but needed some other students besides behavior problems so in talking with the teachers it was decided that students with low self-esteem could also benefit from such a program. I went to the principal of the school to obtain permission to begin the program because it would require 30-40 minutes of my time 4 days a week. I also meet with both the 6th and 1st grade teachers to work out the details, student selection, time and so forth. All agreed it would be a valuable use of my time.

Who did you involve in the developmental process and why?

A involved the first grade teachers in deciding the most valuable things a first grader could do under the guidance of a 6th grader. We had to make it easy for the 6th grader because they had to feel capable of doing the task in order for the project to be a success. This Tall Buddy Program is intended to help guide a Peer-Tutoring Program in an elementary school. Schools can exercise creative freedom as they put together a Tall Buddy tutoring program in reading that meets the needs of their students. It includes instructions to prepare for and begin a school-based tutoring program in reading, how to select tutors and first grade students as well as lessons and materials to teach the 6th graders how to tutor 1st graders.

In putting the guide together I felt it of utmost importance to include thorough training to 6th grade tutors in the elements of the tutoring process. Tutors need to be carefully trained beforehand and monitored frequently. The Tall Buddy tutors will meet with their Small Buddy 3 days a week. One day a week the Tall Buddy Trainer will meet with only the Tall Buddies for debriefing, celebrations and further training. (This meeting also helps to build the relationship between the Tutors and Tall Buddy Coach which is a critical component of the program) Any teacher organizing a Tall Buddies training should assume that tutors require lessons in appropriate behavior like how to pick up kids politely and respectfully to and from the tutoring sessions, use of praise and simple but effective intervention strategies. One of the important facets of the program is the continually monitoring of the program.

In order to make sure Tall Buddy tutors have learned the fundamentals of tutoring before letting them to meet with their Small Buddies they need to be given time to practice, and to show their mastery of the various skills taught. The teacher can come up with their own fun ways to get Tall Buddies to practice under their watchful eye. Whole group response, pairing off students to work on cooperative learning activities, and the use of role-playing are only some of the ideas that students can use to show what they know.

Implementation

The program was implemented and actually begun before the target 5th grade group left for school that year. I went into each 5th grade classroom and gave them the details of the program and passed around a sign in sheet for those students who were interested. Almost the whole 5th grade signed up. (the reason why I did this, when we already knew who the students would be is because I wanted to make them feel specifically chosen for a very special task...helping a first grader who needed help in reading. After summer and the students were 6th graders I had a 2-week training program that is outlined in detail in the project portion. The importance here was twofold, building rapport and trust which helped us form a relationship and also teaching them the important components of a reading tutoring program.

Once trained the Small Buddies were carefully selected based on assessments the teachers had and they were introduced. The program ran for 8 weeks at which time the first grade teachers revisited current data. Many students graduated the program and some stayed for round 2.

At the end of the year at 6th grade graduation the 6th grade teachers passed our many certificates for many different reasons; attendance, presidents honor roll, academic achievement, Gifted and Talented and then I proudly presented all of the Tall Buddies with certificates for making a difference in a first grader's life.

Section IV. Evaluation

This researcher requested the 1st and 6th grade teachers provide feedback which is reiterated verbatim in Table ____ below.

Table ____.

First-grade teacher feedback concerning efficacy of Tall Buddies Reading Initiative.

Grade Level

Feedback

First Grade

The Tall Buddy Program, implemented in the fall of 2005, was a program created for several reasons. 1) to give struggling first graders the opportunity to sharpen their skills to become successful students; 2) to give sixth graders the opportunity to make a difference in younger students lives; and 3) to build cohesiveness among the grade levels and create a sense of responsibility amongst the students involved in the program. The program was successful on many levels. The first graders, for the most part, were able to achieve their goals whether it was learning all the letters and sounds, learning their sight words or building confidence in their reading. The sixth graders were put in leadership roles and given the opportunity to have a positive effect on others. Academically, I was amazed at the progress some of my students made. In particular, I had one student who went from having limited knowledge of her letters and sounds, and unable to read no more than 10 of her basic sight words at the beginning of first grade to leaving first grade at grade level in reading knowing over 100 sight words. Interpersonally, I was able to see positive relationships formed between tall and small buddies alike. Was the program that successful academically for all students? No. Was it successful on SOME level for all students? Yes! The only drawbacks the program had were timing issues -- time for the students to meet and get to know each other on a more personal level, and time for teachers to meet to discuss the particular needs of each student. Overall, the program was successful and beneficial for all students involved!