Similarities and Differences Between African Americans and Hispanics

¶ … Hispanics and 40,375,000 African-Americans live in the United States and the respective percentages of these population groups are projected to continue to increase well into the foreseeable future. The purpose of this study was to provide descriptions of these two cultures and why they are of interest as well as a comparison of similarities and differences related to time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence between these two population groups. The study also presents a description of the theoretical framework that guided the analysis of both of these cultures as well as an explanation concerning how each culture influences human development, identity development, and personality development within it. An examination concerning how each culture influences the expression of emotion, the development of morality, gender, aggression, and marital fidelity and an explanation concerning potential biases that may influence the analysis of these cultures and why are followed by a summary of the research and important findings in the conclusion.

Cross-Cultural Research among Latinos and African-Americans

The demographic composition of the American population has changed significantly in recent decades as the percentages of Latinos and African-Americans have increased faster than the general population. As a result, approximately 88 million Americans at present are Latino or African-American, and these rates are expected to continue to increase well into the foreseeable future. Given these trends, it becomes timely and important to gain some fresh insights into these cultures. To this end, this paper reviews the relevant literature to provide descriptions of these two cultures and why they are of interest as well as a comparison of similarities and differences related to time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence between Latinos and African-Americans and mainstream American culture. In addition, a description of the theoretical framework that guided the analysis of both of these cultures is followed by an explanation concerning how each culture influences human development, identity development, and personality development within it. Finally, an examination concerning how each culture influences the expression of emotion, the development of morality, gender, aggression, and marital fidelity is followed by an explanation concerning potential biases that may influence the analysis of these cultures and why. A summary of the research and important findings concerning the foregoing issues are presented in the conclusion.

Description of the cultures of interest and why they are of interest

For the purposes of this study, the term "Latino" will be used interchangeably with "Hispanic" and likewise, notwithstanding some controversy in this area, the term "black" will be used interchangeably with "African-American." The two cultures of interest, Latinos and African-Americans, are of interest in part because there are so many of them. For example, approximately 15.1% of the total U.S. population is Hispanic and 12.5% African-American (American people, 2016). This means that there are approximately 48,773,000 Hispanics and 40,375,000 African-Americans in the United States today.

Given these enormous numbers and that fact that their representation in the larger population continues to increase, it is clear that these demographic groups will have a significant impact on American society in the future. Indeed, as Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) emphasize, "Latinos, people of Latin American descent, will be the largest ethnic minority group in the United States in the 21st century" (p. 541). Notwithstanding their growing percentages as part of the larger American population, Hispanics, like other minority groups, remain marginalized along a number of important social metrics. For example, Hanson and Santas (2014) emphasize that, "Although growing as a proportion of the population, Hispanics tend to live in ethnically isolated areas, in housing units with worse quality, and in neighborhoods with worse public services and more crime than the white majority" (p. 136).

According to the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede, the mainstream American population is regarded as being highly individualistic, and it is reasonable to extend this analysis to the African-American populations as well (Montoya & Huang, 2013). This assertion is congruent with research that dates back to the first half of the 20th century when research confirmed the individualistic nature of the African-American community in the United States (Steely, 1934). By contrast, though, a study by Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) characterized the Latino population in the United States as being more collectivist in nature. In this regard, Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) report that the American Latino population is characterized by "a sense of identity and commitment to collectives and groups, rather than the individual [and] a focus on intergroup and intragroup harmony, with an avoidance of conflict and confrontation" (p. 541). Taken together, it is clear that African-Americans reflect the individualistic characteristics of the larger American population while Latinos remain a comparatively collectivist population, most likely due to their vastly different American experiences. There are also some similarities and differences between Latinos, African-Americans and the mainstream American population with respect to time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence as discussed further below.

Comparison of similarities and differences related to time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence between Latinos and African-Americans and mainstream American culture

Time orientation. According to Brown (2002), the term "time orientation" refers to the "past, past-future, present, or circular -- oriented to changes that recur in nature as opposed to time as measured by watches and calendars" (p. 49). A growing body of research indicates that difference in time orientation can influence occupational choice and other life-altering decisions and that minorities in the United States tend to have different time orientations than mainstream American society (Brown, 2002). Differences in time orientation can also affect the perceptions of need for social and health care services (Leavitt, 2006). According to Williams (2005), African-American women tend to experience a more fluid time orientation compared to African-American men as well as the mainstream American population. Likewise, a study by Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) found that Latinos tend to have, "A flexible time orientation, with an emphasis on the 'here and now' rather than on the future" (p. 541).

Communication. Health care authorities have experienced significant challenges in tailoring effective health-related messages for the urban African-American community (Stroman, 1998). In this regard, Stroman (1998) advises that, "There are culturally distinctive attitudes that serve as barriers to African-Americans receiving health care messages and/or utilizing the health care system" (p. 664). In addition, researchers have found that at Hispanics born in the United States tend to experience less frequent communications within their family units, a tendency that contributes to higher incidences of substance abuse (Kelly & Cornello, 2002).

Physical and mental health. There are a number of physical and mental health differences that exist among these two minority populations and mainstream American society. For example, a study by Moulton (2009) identified higher rates of organ damage among African-Americans as well as heart disease and stroke resulting from a higher incidence of hypertension. According to Moulton (2009), "African-Americans have an 80% higher rate of stroke mortality, 50% higher rated of heart disease mortality and a 320% greater rate of hypertension - related end - stage renal disease" (p. 166).

Likewise, African-American women are at higher risk for obesity and related disorders due to a sedentary lifestyle, and the research to date has identified a number of social constraints to improving their activity levels (Carter-Parker, Edwards & McCleary-Jones, 2012). In addition, researchers have also identified a number of physical and mental health issues that adversely affect homosexual African-American men. For example, a study by Choi, Paul, Ayala, Boylan and Gregorich (2012) identified higher levels of depression and anxiety among African-American homosexual men compared to mainstream American society. Although the effects varied, these negative mental health outcomes were associated with likely attributable to the different source and types of discrimination that were experienced by these individuals (Ayala et al., 2012).

Likewise, both African-Americans and Hispanics tend to experience disproportionally higher levels of mental health problems following natural disasters (Price, Davidson, Andrews & Ruggiero, 2013). These differences may be attributable in large part to differences in health care access compared to mainstream American society (Price et al., 2013). In addition, many African-Americans who live in inner-city communities tend to experience higher levels of stress and insomnia that adversely affect both physical and mental health status (Hall-Brown & Melliman, 2014). Furthermore, Hispanics account for higher levels of psychiatric symptomatology and prevalence rates of mental health disorders compared with other ethnic groups (Malgady & Zayas, 2001).

There are some other differences between both African-American and Hispanics concerning the need for human papillomavirus (HPV) immunizations and mainstream American society. For example, a study by Thomas and Strickland (2012) found that among Latina immigrants and African-American women living in urban community, African-American women remained more skeptical concerning the efficacy of the HPV vaccine compared to Latinas. Likewise, the results of this study found that male African-Americans were less aware of HPV infection and vaccination compared to Hispanics and mainstream American society (Thomas & Strickland, 2012). Another study of African-Americans acceptance levels of HPV among daughters and parents found a low acceptance level because the disease is believed to be related to sexual promiscuity (Thomas & Strickland 2012).

Perceptions of measures of intelligence. The ability to accurately assess intelligence levels of African-American and Hispanic students represents an essential component of the academic process because it can serve as an indicator of ability (Naglieri & Ronning, 2000). Inaccurate intelligence assessments of African-Americans and Latino children, though, can result in disproportionate numbers of these young learners being placed in remedial classes and denied opportunities for placement in gifted student classrooms (Naglieri & Ronning, 2000). To date, researchers have identified three main factors that account for the majority of differences in intelligence and cognition testing results as well as academic achievement and socio-emotional problems among African-Americans: (a) family-level poverty, (b) low socioeconomic status, and (c) residence in less economically advantaged neighborhoods (Jones & Palmer, 2004).

Notwithstanding these factors, though, other researchers argue that the intelligence tests that are used for these minority groups were specifically designed to evaluate intelligence levels among whites and their use for these minority groups inevitably introduces problems in accurately assessing true intelligence levels (Franklin, 2007). These disparities in testing results helped to justify segregated schools for decades. Based on the administration of the Binet Intelligence Test to a group of African-American students in Philadelphia in 1910, one sociologist concluded that there were "distinct differences between White and Negro children in all aspects studied, environment (home conditions), school conditions and progress, and in mental and physical manifestations" (cited in Franklin, 2007, p. 217). These findings resulted in recommendations for the continuing separation of African-American public schools as well as special curricular offerings that were focused on industrial education (Franklin, 2007). In 1913 and 1914, subsequent administrations of the Binet Intelligence Test to African-American students in Philadelphia's public schools resulted in separate African-American public schools remaining in place until 1934 (Franklin, 2007).

Description of the theoretical framework that will guide the analysis of both cultures

The theory of planned behavior developed by Ajzen (1980) provides a useful theoretical framework in which to analyze Latino and African-American cultures because it focuses on how individuals from these two cultures can reasonably be expected behave within and without their own cultures (Pickett & Ginsburg, 2012). For example, the theory of planned behavior was used to good effect by Carter-Parker, Edwards and McCleary-Jones (2012) to evaluate the correlates of physical activity among African-American women who are physical active and those who are not.

The overarching tenet of the theory of planned behavior is the individual's intention to behave in a certain fashion (Prieto, Phipps & Friedrich, 2012). From this perspective, individual intentions are assumed to reflect the motivational factors that tend to influence behaviors. In sum, individual intentions "are indications of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior" (Prieto et al., 2012, 2). Therefore, the likelihood of the performance of a specific behavior is directly related to the strength of the intention to perform that behavior (Prieto et al., 2012). The theory of planned behavior uses three determinates of intention as follows:

1. The person's attitude, conceptualized as the overall evaluation, either positive or negative, of performing the behavior of interest;

2. Subjective norm which reflects perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior; and,

3. Perceived behavioral control which reflects the extent to which the behavior is perceived to be under volitional control (perceived behavioral control has been argued to indirectly affect behavior via intentions and/or have a direct effect on behavior) (Prieto et al., 2012, p. 2).

An application of the theory of planned behavior is provided below with respect to how culture influences human development, identity develop and personality development within a culture.

Explanation concerning how each culture influences human development, identity development, and personality development within it

Like mainstream Americans, both African-American and Hispanics inculcate fundamental cultural values, mores and behaviors in their children that have a profound effect on identity and personality development (Meisenberg & Kaul, 2010).. In this regard, Meisenburg and Kaul (2010) point out that, "Children tend to be similar to their parents, both through cultural transmission in families and genetic inheritance. This similarity extends to personality traits and cognitive abilities that determine the 'culture' of a nation or group" (p. 152).

The human development of Hispanics, however, remains constrained by a number of institutionalized practices, including the lack of available funding from grant-making foundations (Prieto et al., 2012). Indeed, Preito and his associations emphasize that, "Of all the funds granted each year by major U.S. foundations, the amount earmarked for Hispanics fluctuates between 2% and three-quarters of 1%" (2012, p. 3). Moreover, the continuing reliance on Hispanic nonprofit organizations to provide community-based support services for the Hispanic population is a clear indication that this demographic group remains marginalized from mainstream American society in ways that influence development across the entire spectrum. In this regard, Prieto et al. (2012) emphasize that, "The existence of Hispanic nonprofits is largely the result of incomplete integration and lack of opportunity for Hispanics in mainstream economic and legal institutions" (p. 4).

These constraints have translated into a situation today wherein many African-Americans and Hispanics lack the incentive to create or participate in organizations that can help overcome these limitations. As Prieto and his colleagues conclude, "African-American and Hispanic students do not have a strong desire to make a difference by creating non-profit or for-profit social enterprises and ventures that can impact their communities and society in general" (p. 4). Therefore, human development remains constrained by a self-perpetuating cycle of cultural influences that limit both opportunities as well as motivations among these minority populations today.

Explanation concerning how each culture influences the expression of emotion, the development of morality, gender, aggression, and violence.

Expression of emotion. A study by Buzi and Weinman (2010) found that both African-American and Hispanic males frequently experience pressure to avoid emotional expression, believe they need to hide their weaknesses and vulnerabilities, and solve their individual problems without seeking the assistance of others. This tendency may help account for the inordinately high incidence of suicide among African-American males, especially those aged 10 to 24 years because after homicide and unintentional injuries, suicide represents the leading cause of death (Buzi & Weinman, 2010). Although Hispanic males have a lower incidence of suicide, they still demonstrate higher incidences of suicide planning and attempts as well as an elevated sense of hopelessness (Buzi & Weinman, 2010).

Development of morality. According to LaRossa (2009), there are higher numbers of single-parent families headed by teenage mothers among African-Americans compared to mainstream American society and this trend has largely been culturally accepted by the African-American population while it is looked upon as immoral behaviors by many members of mainstream America. Likewise, the high rates of incarceration for African-Americans, most especially males, has been viewed by mainstream America as an indication of immoral values and behaviors despite studies that have found high rates of disproportionate sentencing among this population (Kamalu & Coulson-Clark, 2010). Similarly, Hispanics are frequently targeted by law enforcement authorities at higher rates than mainstream Americans due to perceptions of immoral behaviors among this population (Glasser, 2000). Consequently, Hispanics tend to experience higher rates of incarceration compared to mainstream American society as well (Glasser, 2000).

Development of gender. Traditional male and female gender expectations are characteristic of the majority of the Latino population in the United States today (Gutierrez & Yeakley, 2000). The development of traditional gender roles represents an important human development aspect because Latinos with a collectivist worldview tend to gravitate toward traditional occupational roles that satisfy gender expectations. In this regard, Brown reports that, "Gender will be a major factor in the careers entered by individuals who hold a collective social value such as Latinos because of stereotyped perceptions of occupations by decision makers. The result will be that occupational choices are more likely to be stereotypical male and female" (2002, p. 49). Moreover, Latino women with a collectivist social value tend to pursue a more limited range of occupational choices compared to Latino males with the same collectivist values (Brown, 2002).

Development of aggression. While homicide is the second leading cause of death and injury among people aged 15 to 24 years, violence constitutes the leading cause of death for African-American youth today (Okwumabua, Okwumabua & Wong, 2014). Some indication of the propensity for aggression among the African-American youth community can be easily discerned from recent statistical evidence that indicates their overrepresentation in violent crimes. For example, Okwumabua et al. (2014) point out that, "In 2006, although only 17% of Americans under age 18 years represented African-American, 51% of juvenile violent crime arrests were African-American" (p. 667). Furthermore, during the period 2002 to 2005, African-American male youths accounted for nearly half (49%) of the total number of homicides in the African-American population although they only accounted for 8% of this population (Okwumabua et al., 2014).

More troubling still, the homicide rate for African-American youths as victims had increased by 31% and the percentage of African-American male juveniles who committed homicides increased by 43% by 2007 (Okwumabua et al., 2014). While additional research is needed in this area, the studies to date have identified several factors to account for this increase in violent behavior among African-American youth in recent years. In this regard, Okwumabua et al. conclude that, "In accounting for the violent behaviors exhibited among African-American youth, a plethora of interrelated causal factors have been indicated including social ills stimulated by multiple etiologies such as poverty, anger, depression, hopelessness, and deficiencies in cognitive and coping skills" (2014, p. 667). Likewise, the rates of aggression among the Hispanic population have also increased in recent years, but some researchers attribute this to corresponding increases in the overall Hispanic population rather than a growing propensity for aggression among this population (Rennison, 2007).

Development of marital fidelity. The overwhelming majority of mainstream Amerricans (90%) disapprove of marital infidelity (Treas & Giesen, 2000). Marital infidelity can increase the likelihood of acquiring sexually transmitted infections including HIV / AIDS that can then be transmitted to a spouse (Foxman, Newman, Percha, Holmes & Aral, 2006; Macunda, Erickson, Singer & Santelices, 2011). According to Treas and Giesen, "Permissive sexual values are associated with extramarital sex. Being male, African-American, and well educated are all associated with permissive sexual values" (2000, p. 49). Such permissive sexual values translate into an increased likelihood of African-Americans having multiple sexual relationships compared to mainstream American society (Treas & Giesen, 2000). By contrast, Latinos tend to embrace marital fidelity as a fundamental virtue and regard close family ties as an important part of the life experience (Stamps, 2007).