The Carolingian Renaissance and the revival of European intellectual culture

Carolingian Renaissance was a period occurring in the late 8th and 9th centuries characterized by a revival in an interest in intellectual and culture development. The leadership of Carolingian rulers, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, spear headed this interest (Trompf). The movement itself was an isolated event and did not incorporate all of Europe. It was limited to the confines of the royal court and monasteries but was important nonetheless as the movement was responsible for the preserving of existing knowledge and the copying of ancient manuscripts for future generations. The movement also resulted in the establishment of a strong learning environment in monasteries throughout Europe and the adoption of Latin as a common language as a form of communication. By adopting Latin as a common language, communication between differing cultures and society was made possible and the exchange of ideas became possible. Although this increased interest in learning and culture was limited to the royal court and monasteries, it did establish the basis for all future intellectual pursuits throughout Europe.

II. Culture

The fall of Rome had a tragic and long-lasting effect on Europe. The center of power and influence was transferred to the East where the Byzantine and Islamic civilizations were prospering while in Europe society was struggling. In a period known commonly as the Dark Ages, most of Europe was engaged in an endless series of wars and the virtual disappearance of any urban life. For most persons living in Europe in the period between the fall of Rome and the emergence of the Frankish Kingdom finding protection and security were primary concerns and learning and cultural affairs were inconsequential.

The chaos that developed in Europe following the fall of Rome began to dissipate as the German Franks began expanding their influence on the continent (Wickham). The Franks first established themselves in Western Europe when a young Frankish king, Clovis, assumed the throne in 486. Similar to what happened in the eastern end of the old Roman Empire with Constantine, Clovis also converted to Catholicism after ascending to the throne and proceeded to go about attempting to convert the rest of his empire. Clovis turned the focus of his wars from acts of aggression into holy wars and, in the process, the Frankish Kingdom became closely aligned with the Roman Catholic Church. This alignment would become closer through the ensuing centuries to the point where the Kingdom would become known as the Holy Roman Empire.

Clovis' death would result in his Kingdom falling apart for a period of time but the influence of the Franks on politics and society would remain strong and when Charlemagne came to power in 771 the process of building the civilization that would dominate the European continent until the Renaissance began. The magic of Charlemagne's reign and the years hence that became to be known as the Carolingian Renaissance was the stability that it finally brought to the continent (Barbero). The years of barbaric attack and cultural uncertainty were over as Charlemagne successfully merged elements of the old Roman rule with Germanic customs and laws (Dutton). Like Clovis before him, Charlemagne was devoted to the Roman Catholic Church and imposed its theology on his subjects. Under Charlemagne, the class system that would dominate European society throughout the Middle Ages was organized. The class system was divided into essentially three classes: 1) the peasants or serfs; 2) the nobility; and, 3) the clergy (Kreis). This system worked effectively throughout Europe for hundreds of years and provided society with the protection and security that was lacking for so long following the fall of Rome.

When Charlemagne came to power the majority of society was uneducated. Due to the style of life that most individuals were living there was little time available for things outside maintaining basic sustenance. Even the nobility, which was responsible primarily for fighting the King's battles, was lacking education and would be considered, by modern standards, crude individuals. Only the clergy possessed any semblance of education and this was very rudimentary. The wisdom of Charlemagne, however, was recognizing where the strength of the system was and he placed the responsibility for establishing a new source for learning and culture on the shoulders of the clergy (Contreni). The clergy, which included both priests and monks, were only marginally better educated than the general public in Charlemagne's time but Charlemagne realized that this marginality was important. Charlemagne was extremely devoted to the expansion of new ideas and the preservation of old ones and he worked diligently to make sure that the clergy became actively engaged in the learning process. Having studied the languages of Latin and Greek, rhetoric, logic, and astronomy he felt quite comfortable in the presence of educated men.

One of the educated men who played a significant role in the formation of Charlemagne's empire and contributed greatly to his educational system was the Anglo-Saxon, Alcuin (Lorenz). Alcuin was responsible for designing the learning curriculum for Charlemagne's palace school in Aachen that led to the course of study that trained the empire's clergy. It was Alcuin who was responsible for the formation of the curriculum that would characterize the basic outline for liberal arts study well into the 20th century. Under Alcuin's guidance, liberal arts study consisted of courses in grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music (Cantor).

Alcuin's curriculum was quite sophisticated for its time and likely far more complicated than necessary to prepare the clergy for copying manuscripts but Charlemagne was determined to have an educated clergy and encouraged Alcuin to devise such a curriculum. As a result of Alcuin's efforts the clergy in Charlemagne's empire were able to engage themselves in the process of copying and editing manuscripts in an effort to save the information that had been handed down through the centuries and were in danger of being destroyed. In addition, Charlemagne and Alcuin were also responsible for developing a new system of writing that made the reading of the ancient manuscripts much easier to read. Prior to Charlemagne, manuscripts were prepared without use of punctuation, clear separation between words, and the exclusive use of uppercase letters. Under Charlemagne's guidance, a new script system was designed, indentified as Carolingian miniscule, which used lower and upper case letters, punctuation, and separation between letters (John). The new script system made reading of the manuscript much easier. The system designed under Charlemagne's instruction is remarkably similar to the script that is presently used.

When Charlemagne ascended to the throne there was no uniform method of communicating among European cultures. Latin had been used but through the years the language had been allowed to fall into disuse and confusion reigned as colloquialisms had developed that contributed to confusion and poor translations (Chambers). To eliminate these confusions, Charlemagne proceeded to actively develop a standardized form of Latin in an effort to improve communications among the different peoples of Europe (Stewart).

Charlemagne's accomplishments in the areas of learning and scholarship were commendable but his accomplishments were largely limited to the areas around his royal court at Aachen. Although he tried to extend the spirit of learning throughout his empire doing so proved to be more difficult than he imagined. Overcoming the effects of several centuries where intellectual and cultural affairs were virtually ignored, it was nearly impossible for effective change to be accomplished on a wide scale basis. The intent of Charlemagne and the other Carolingian rulers was to improve overall level of learning throughout the Holy Roman Empire but, in reality, only small changes occurred in the exterior regions of the kingdom.

III. Science

As has already been noted, Charlemagne was deeply devoted to the concept of learning. This devotion extended to the area of science but it must be understood that science in the 8th century meant something much different than it does today. In the 8th century, the Roman Catholic Church dominated much learning and any ideas that approximated scientific thought was looked upon as superstition and deemed as heresy. Because of this influence, the field of science in Charlemagne's times was limited to the field of astronomy (Rand).

Charlemagne studied astronomy and was familiar with its uses and terminology. He would have liked for the study of astronomy to be pursued throughout his empire but the level of education was so poor as to make such study difficult (Eastwood). In an effort to promote the study of astronomy, Charlemagne maintained a program of restoring and building new schools throughout his kingdom. Like he had done in his program for educating the clergy, Charlemagne built these schools so that they would be under the authority of a nearby monastery, cathedral, or a royal court (Butzer).

The deplorable state of generalized education in Europe in the 8th century and the powerful influence of the Roman Catholic Church made any study in the area of science difficult but Charlemagne was determined to make sure that the overall literacy improved throughout Europe during his reign. Toward this end Charlemagne attempted to have the study of ancient Roman and Greek texts extended to as many people as possible.

One of the major problems faced by Charlemagne in his efforts to extend the level of education was the fact that there were very few educated persons available to teach others. Years of neglect had left the educational field with few individuals possessing the background necessary to teach others. What little scholarship that still existed in Europe was concentrated in and around Rome and Charlemagne initiated an aggressive program to attract the leading Italian scholars to his court. By recruiting these scholars to his court, Charlemagne ensured that the full body of available knowledge would be made available to himself and his subjects. From this pool of scholars, Charlemagne built his program of learning and began slowly to establish his own body of Frankish scholars. From this group, the future European learning environment would be built (Einhard) and the future of the European educational system would be ensured.

The curriculum used during the Carolingian Renaissance was based on the same educational disciplines that were utilized by the ancient Greeks and Romans. For these ancient civilizations, education was a privilege and was reserved for only free persons and the program of study was comprised of core subjects known as liberal arts. These core subjects did not vary substantially over the course of time (Marrou) and the goal behind the teaching of these core subjects was to convey a general body of knowledge that also served to develop the student's ability to think rationally and to increase his intellectual capabilities. There was no concern in the classical educational model for developing specialization. The goal was to develop the whole person.

The idea of a liberal arts education began with the ancient Greeks. Under the democratic governmental system utilized by the Greeks, an educated citizenry was essential but under the monarchial system as used during the Carolingian Renaissance this need was minimal. To the credit of the Carolingian monarchs, they nonetheless placed a heavy emphasis on a liberal arts education.

Charlemagne and the other Carolingian rulers contributed significantly to the development of the education system in Europe but their greatest legacy is the preservation of the ancient manuscripts that had been passed down from the Greek and Roman cultures. Nearly all the knowledge that modern civilization possess of ancient cultures is the result of the efforts of Carolingian Renaissance scholars.

IV. Economics

The Holy Roman Empire during the Carolingian Renaissance covered most of Western Europe. As a result, it had a significant effect on trade transacted throughout Europe and the policies initiated by the Empire controlled most of the commerce occurring on the continent.

During the Carolingian Renaissance, a significant change was made in the monetary system that was used throughout Europe (Verhulst). Through Charlemagne's guidance, the gold standard that had been used for many years was abandoned and a new system based on silver coinage was initiated. The reasons for this change were motivated by pragmatism as there was a severe shortage of gold during Charlemagne's time and the existence of conflicting currencies was causing confusion in the market place. The standardization resulted in one form of coinage being recognized throughout the Holy Roman Empire ruled by Charlemagne which served to promote trade and allowed the continent to enjoy a brief period of prosperity. During this period Charlemagne also enacted new laws that minimized some of the power of the nobility and allowed the peasantry, who had previously been excluded from most commerce, to participate in some minimal trading (Scott).

Although the primary industry in Europe during the Carolingian Renaissance was agriculture there was some craftsmanship being practiced in the areas of sword manufacturing, pottery, and glassware that produced products that were exported to other areas of Europe, such as England, Scandinavia, and the Lowlands (present day Belgium and Netherlands). Some minimal trade was also initiated between the Empire and the Byzantium and Islam nations. The standardization of coinage made trade with these other nations much easier (Kreis).

During the Carolingian Renaissance, the long held prejudice against Jews was raised in the form of a strict prohibition against money lending. For a variety of reasons, Jews had historically been identified with money lending. The Roman Catholic Church had established a position against money lending and the strong identity of Jews with money lending contributed to the already strong bias against Jews in Europe. The Carolingian rulers ratified the position espoused by the Church.

Under Charlemagne's leadership the system that became known as feudalism developed (Grabowski). The system developed almost by mistake but it was the result of Charlemagne's practice of dividing his kingdom up into smaller and smaller parcels that were ruled by local rulers appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor. As time progressed, Europe was divided up into small kingdoms ruled by individuals seeking to expand their power and influence (S. Kreis). What resulted was a Europe facing constant skirmishes throughout its borders.

As long as a strong monarch occupied the seat of the Holy Roman Empire these small skirmishes were manageable but toward the end of the Carolingian period this was not the case as several weak monarchs ascended to the throne. The result was a period of confusion and conflict. Contributing further to the problem was that Europe was again subject to invasions from various sources. In order to repel these invasions the smaller kingdoms created by the orchestrated division of Charlemagne and other Carolingian monarchs organized their own armies and build castles to protect their holdings. This system led to loyalties being directed toward the local landowner and loyalties toward the monarch to be lessened (Brown).

The feudal society that developed initially during the Carolingian Renaissance and then intensified in the waning years of said period was based on the need for security and protection (Stephenson). The Carolingian years the Holy Roman Empire provided these needs but as weaker monarchs occupied the throne it became incumbent on local lords to fill the void. The system varied considerably from locale to locale throughout Europe but all such systems were based on the need for security and all systems were symbiotic. The Lords would provide the protection and the peasants served the lord in whatever way they could, usually farming, in order to avail themselves of the protection. Charlemagne and his immediate successors would have been disappointed to see how feudalism developed but the times and circumstances demanded its utilization.

VI. Architectural Principles

The Carolinian family left a lasting legacy throughout Europe in the form of cathedrals, monasteries, and castles. In a short span of hundred years the Carolingian family constructed 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences (Contreni).

The form of architecture adopted by the Carolingians was similar to that used in Rome shortly before its fall. Buildings in Europe prior to the Carolingian period were essentially boxlike structures with little style or grandeur but this changed as Charlemagne ascended to the throne. Like he had done in other areas, Charlemagne attempted to upgrade the overall artistic value of the public buildings throughout his empire and many examples of how he did so remain available for viewing today. Examples of Carolingian architecture remain in the form of the chapel at Aachen, the Abbey of Corvey, and the monastery at Lorsch.

Although Carolingian architects were heavily influenced by the Roman architectural style they also developed their own style which relied heavily upon an emphasis on the western extremity of churches and monasteries. Little is understood relative to why the architects of this era adopted such an approach but it was almost universally applied. Various structures have utilized the westward emphasis in different ways but in nearly every Carolingian structure the westward facade became the focal point of the structure (Conant).

VII. Construction Technology

After the fall of Rome and the rise of Charlemagne to power there was virtually no construction in Europe. What construction that did exist was based architecturally on the style used in classic Rome and, as a result, the techniques used by the laborers responsible for constructing the builds were largely those used during Roman times. The limited building that did take place in Europe prior to the Carolingian period was done under the supervision of Church but with the emergence of Charlemagne substantial changes occurred that changed the architectural styling but the technology involved in the construction changed very little. For the most part, the same construction procedures and techniques that had been used to build Rome and the other great cities of Europe were used during the Carolingian Renaissance (Kibler).

There were some changes in the construction of new buildings in the Carolingian period. One of these changes was the use of more locally produced products. The Roman method was to mass produce certain materials that were used routinely in the construction of most buildings. Such materials, like columns for instance, were therefore mass produced and shipped throughout the empire. During Carolingian times, however, the practice developed where locally mined and formed columns were used instead.

There were some attempts by contractors during the Carolingian era to try some construction techniques but in large measure they were unsuccessful. The buildings constructed during the Carolingian Renaissance were of the same basic structural style with timbers continuing to form the roof of most structures and the walls being formed of concrete. The walls of some structures were thicker but the lack of new construction techniques limited the development of any major changes in architecture.

VIII. Master Builder Tradition

The Carolingian period was not blessed with an inordinate number of highly educated individuals. This was a serious problem for the Carolingian rulers and only a concentrated effort by Charlemagne and those that followed him made it possible for the empire to avail itself of the talents of the few educated men that existed in Europe in the 8th and 9th centuries. The design and building of structures such as cathedrals, monasteries, and libraries require advanced skills and the long period between the fall of Rome and the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance caused a severe drop off in the availability of persons capable of performing these tasks. Charlemagne, however, was able to find several architects and builders who possessed the requisite skills and used them effectively in building his empire.

For whatever reason there is little documented evidence as to the identity of the various craftsmen that participated in the building of the Carolingian buildings. The buildings themselves exist so it is safe to surmise that such craftsmen were available but no one apparently thought it appropriate to document who these men were.

One such individual is known, however, and he is the individual who was responsible for the design of one of the most notorious of the Carolingian buildings -- the Palace of Aachen -- which was Charlemagne's royal residence. Odo of Metz was the individual reportedly responsible for the design of such structure but little beyond his name and basic background is known. Odo of Metz was a member of the clergy and was apparently educated in the liberal arts but it is unknown whether he received any further formal training. His designs indicate that he was influenced by the Roman architectural form and other styles popular in Italy at the time but there is nothing indicating that Odo ever visited or studied in Italy (Favier)

IX. Conclusion

The Carolingian Renaissance ended a long period of cultural and intellectual decay that followed the fall of the western portion of the Roman Empire. Lasting approximately a hundred years, the Carolingian Renaissance marked a remarkable period of history that reviled the more famous Renaissance that ended the Middle Ages. The Carolingian Renaissance was dominated by the figure of Charlemagne but there were other competent rulers from the Carolingian family and a number of highly talented scholars who assisted the growth of learning and laid the foundation for further cultural development in the years that followed the end of the Carolingian Renaissance. The Roman Catholic Church remained an important factor in the period but Charlemagne and the rulers that followed him were able to minimize the Church's influence sufficiently to allow the secular authority of the Carolingian family to develop.

The Carolingian Renaissance brought about many changes on the continent of Europe with most of these changes centering around activities related to the many new cathedrals, monasteries, and libraries that were erected during the period. These physical facilities provided centers for learning that was based on the liberal arts curriculum that was similar to the same method of study that had been used for centuries by the Greek and Roman cultures. The facilities also provided the clergy and monks a location to conduct their massive responsibility of copying the volumes of historical manuscripts that were in danger of being lost forever. Charlemagne made it a priority of his years as Holy Roman Emperor to ensure that the knowledge of the ancient civilizations were not lost. Almost immediately upon assuming the throne, Charlemagne began the task of educating the clergy so that the business of copying the historical manuscripts could be accomplished.

As a collateral development in the process of copying manuscripts, a new method of scripting arose out of the Carolingian Renaissance. This new scripting method, known as Carolingian miniscule, made the reading of manuscripts much easier through the use of upper and lower case letters, punctuation, and spacing between letters and words. The system devised by scholars educated through the curriculum encouraged by Charlemagne remained in effect until modern times.

In spite of all the cultural and educational improvements that the Carolingian Renaissance brought to the continent of Europe, its greatest contribution to the history of Western Civilization may be the fact that it brought a period of peace and prosperity to the European continent. After several hundred years of continuous conflict and chaos, the Carolingian family brought a period of organization and security to a population that had been living in fear and chaos. The period did not last long but for a brief while the continent experienced some measure of peace.

Finally, the activities of the monasteries during and after the Carolingian Renaissance proved to be the period's gift to humanity. The monasteries not only preserved volumes of valuable manuscripts, encourage the study of the Bible, and initiate changes in handwriting, they also passed on the value of learning and hard work onto future generations. The dedication to learning that began in the Carolingian Renaissance lasted through the remainder of the Middle Ages and contributed to what eventually developed into the Renaissance of Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci and Galileo.