Machine Age the Five Architectural

Machine Age

The five architectural projects reviewed in this section represent the pinnacle of a confluence of a number of different factors that pertain to the early half of the 20th century. For the first time, man focused on erecting structures with an unparalleled degree of height and functionality that suited a variety of purposes. Yet as a review of the following pages indicates, the process by which the technology, craftsmanship, and managerial principles necessary for this type of efficiency elucidates some of the most salient aspects of the Machine Age.

It is far from coincidental that some of the most well-known architects during this epoch originated from Germany, particularly when one considers the impact Germany had on the first part of the 20th century politically, economically, and socially with its part in both World Wars (Jessen). More than any other nation during this time frame, Germany best exemplified the cyclical economic boom and bust that dominated theories of economics advocated by the Austrian School and by Joseph Schumpeter in particular. Hayek's notions of totalitarian government were brought to life in Deutschland, which was able to revive its devastated economy (Castillo) after its decimation during the First World War in part due to the production of materials in preparation for the Second World War. Although Walter Gropius erected his crowning achievement, the Fagus Factory, prior to World War I and his affiliation with the Bauhaus School for which he was renowned (Simkin), the construction of this edifice helped to reinforce Germany's need for industrialization and the spread of corporate prowess that was part of its initial economic prosperity during this century. This structure emphasized the utilitarian principles that Machine Age construction was noted for in a number of ways -- most demonstrably via the fact that its purpose was to help spur the aid of industry as a means of manufacturing. The most widely used construction material on the project, glass, was one of the chief materials of the age, was one of the most defining features of this structure (Pevsner 4-5) and helped to provide light for employees to work within for a highly utilitarian purpose, which was another central tenet of construction during this period.

The usage of glass and steel frames were responsible for the erection of the primary structure that the Machine Age was noted for -- skyscrapers, which were initially built by Louis Sullivan (Kaufman 52)in the declining and early years of the 19th and 20th centuries, respectively. Skyscrapers sum up the key characteristics of Machine Age construction. They are highly utilitarian and provide a variety of uses for the furtherance of corporations and the industries that depend on them via their means of providing considerable office space in a limited length and width. This notion was one of the most important that Sullivan bestowed upon the other master builders that followed him during the Machine Age -- the concept that form is derived from function (Sullivan). When one examines certain aspects of Sullivan's Guaranty Building, for instance, and denotes the different usages for retail shop space, office space, and equipment storage, it is fairly apparent that this building adheres to this principle. Even the modest ornamentation of this structure is simply rooted in the construction materials (Sullivan 1). The apex of functionality for residential buildings would be constructed at the end of the Machine Age, with Le Corbusier's Unite d'Habitation, which served as a virtual village of sorts and provided domestic housing, schooling, healthcare facilities, and retail opportunities for residents. This structure helped to spawn the utilitarian architectural movement known as the Brutalist Movement (Banham 16)

Another characteristic of Machine Age architecture that the Guaranty Building exemplifies is the fact that its construction was completed in a modest amount of time, within two years. The increasing speed in which projects could be planned, designed, executed, and finished reflected the virtues of superior construction technology and materials that emanated from the Industrial Age and from the newfound principle of scientific management -- the precursor to project management -- that was developing at the same time that Sullivan was forming his primary notion of construction. In some ways, notions of management and the efficacy that it produced was equally as important, if not more so, than Sullivan's principles of design that the Machine Age has been noted for. There are several noteworthy building projects during this period that utilize the management theories that chiefly stem from the efforts of Frederick Taylor, which were in response for a uniform need for such a field of study (Wrege and Hodgetts 1283-1291). One of the most effective contributions Taylor made to management principles that directly affected construction was his abetting of the mass production process via the assembly line, which is an excellent example of the concept propounded by Schumpeter that innovations accompany periods of prosperity that address some of the causes of the preceding recession. Taylor's focus on methods to improve employee and overall company productivity and to partition processes into specific tasks that require as little body movement and deviation from work as possible (Taylor), was instrumental to the construction of structures such as Mies van der Rohe's renowned masterpiece at 860 and 830 Lakeshore Drive. Such a structure was able to implement not only notions of management popularized by Taylor, but also conceptions of scheduling as advanced by one of Taylor's disciples, Henry Gantt, whose Gantt chart is still incorporated into scheduling and labor management charts today (Weaver). Van der Rohe, more so than the other architects who erected acclaimed works during the Machine Age, utilized a minimalist style that served to underscore a high degree of functionality and incorporation of natural elements that was based upon a logical structuring (Puente 31). The degree of efficacy in which his work on Lakeshore Drive was completed is exemplified that the pair of towers only took two years to create -- approximately one year per building. The design itself was a series of glass rectangles reinforced by steel casings that was refreshingly void of visible ornamentation (Harris) and extremely utilitarian in the amount of living space that it provided to Illinois residents. The architect's usage of the skin and bones technique (Filler) was both aesthetic as well as adherent to the crucial feel of minimalism he was striving for. It should be remembered that these buildings were finished at the conclusion of the Machine Age, after World War II, and were created during a time in which the U.S. had successfully escaped the financial devastation from the Great Depression and was enjoying the monetary boons of a robust wartime economy that was still benefitting from the recent victory. The creation of skyscrapers for purely residential purposes, although not necessarily innovated by van der Rohe, certainly helped to underscore the economic trend of recession and financial stability with certain innovations based on the success. Van der Rohe's structure was able to provide a viable means of housing for a wide number of people at a minimum of space and decoration -- yet the buildings were still noted for their stark design and eminent, simplistic design. Such a profitable architectural project with prominent social boons helps to underscore the very virtues that the Machine Age represented.

The Empire State building represents a zenith of several facets of the Machine Age as well. Due to its sheer height, it is the acme of skyscrapers and represents the perfection of the work initially begun with Sullivan in the 19th century. It was completed between the two world wars and just prior to the economic downturn of the Great Depression, demonstrating that economic prosperity serves as a crucial background for cultural and scientific developments which this building represents. The celerity in which this structure was erected in order to earn the distinction of the world' tallest building (Myers) attests to the influence of scientific management and the prudent application of resources and materials that functioned as the professional zeitgeist at the time, particularly since it served as a means of providing space for the increasing trend towards white-collar work.

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5. Conclusion (Please help to add 1000 words)

Please use existing references from sections 1 to 4. New reference is not required. A total of 20 references are needed

In the Industrial Revolution, the professional designer and the professional construction manager received their definitive separation, and were regarded by some as being improper to attempt to be related to one another (Kostof 194). The process leading to this had its founding in the Byzantine period. Then in the Renaissance the issue was clearly raised as a debate between the traditional master builder, who comprised multiple roles linked with design, craft, and building, and the pure designer. The Baroque period moved further in this direction with the separation of designer and engineer, the latter responsible for the actual technological process of building and craft supervision. Yet it was the final period in the 1800s where the two roles were severed entirely.

After this, their only interaction was communication, which took place efficiently through telegraphs, telephones, and improved systems of information delivery. The professional manager held ultimate responsibility for construction, while the designer's authority with respect to the client receded. on-site work done by subcontractors was managed by large general contractors who provided the supervising engineers, and did not necessarily have to adhere to the designers places (Cuff 33). This change was a direct consequence of the arrangement of work in the Industrial Revolution, where specialisation was given new dimensions and management sped up to keep pace with the quickening of material manufacturing, steam-powered machine labour, and transportation systems. It also was necessitated by the increase in the mathematical and mechanical knowledge of structures. It became difficult if not impossible for one person to understand the complicated mathematics of design and materials, and to apply this within the field of craftsmanship and building. With increasing information through new media, it was also difficult to keep abreast of current technological advances.

All of these changes were evident in the three buildings discussed above. In the case of the Eiffel Tower, the new system of bidding out design contracts -- one that harkened back to Renaissance competitions -- is clear. Eiffel was not a single man but a design firm under his direction, and his company won the contract over 100 other bidders. With Telford, Paxton, and Eiffel, fresh designs using different materials were implemented based on new principles of mathematics and production. Some of these designs, such as that of the Crystal Palace, resulted in new services including heating and ventilation (Nuttgens 245); Paxton's innovations with glass and iron were a radical departure from previous architecture (Kostoff 595) and heralded the rise of construction materials in the future (skyscrapers) rather than those of previous eras (Middleton & Watkin 359) . In each case, the site work was managed efficiently by the contractor, not by the architect. The contractor coordinated subcontracted labour in these buildings. The sites were organised with sophistication based on premanufactured materials and mechanisation of the worksite. Craft guilds vanished, replaced by contractors to improve productivity and uniformity. The designer made designs off-site and submitted them to the contractor. Architecture moved away from involvement with construction. The master builder tradition disappeared with this professionalised split.

The change to labour was in the reduction of the amount of manpower necessary given the ascendancy of the new machines and the mechanisation of all processes formerly requiring human and animal muscle. The workforce reduced although the scale of the building projects increased. Labourers were required to possess increased specialisation, and may have been guided in their work practises by the Protestant notion of the intrinsic value of work. In addition, knowledgeable people were needed to run machines. The notion of the guild dissipated, transformed now into the industrial labour union that tried to negotiate wages against entrepreneurial capitalists who built to make money. Subcontractors and contractors managed their own labourers under the overarching eye of the general contractor. The architect, who was now a pure designer, played no role in the management of craft builders or engineers.

Much of the management thought during this time influenced the way labour was organised in the factory system. A great deal of scrutiny was applied towards increasing worker motivation and productivity through incentives. The division of labour into specialised tasks was amplified. Manufacturing processes were simplified and reduced, with their unnecessary elements eliminated. Production was standardized and submitted to quality-control procedures, increased surveillance, and monitoring. This entire culture was in the service of profit.

All of these management theories, driven by a social scientific thrust, combined to lay the groundwork for twentieth-century management techniques, epitomized by Taylor's the Principles of Scientific Management, which extends beyond the time period of this investigation. They reflect the growing need in the Industrial Revolution for the creation of a professional class of managers. Many of the ideas would have been adopted by industrial contractors in their supervision of work processes, although only in an elementary form. As such the Industrial Revolution, both in its social and technological influences, prepared for later generations of project managers.

One of the fundamental testaments to the rapid amount of progress levied during the Industrial Revolution in areas of economics, labor, and construction technology is the length of time with which major structures were erected. At the beginning of the period, projects such as the Menai Straits Suspension Bridge and Iron Bridge routinely took around five years to complete, whereas some structures, such as the Thames Tunnel, took the better part of 20 years to finish. But as principles of management were refined and communication became more efficient throughout the duration of the 19th century, it is highly important to see the expedience of the completion of structures like the Eiffel Tower and the Crystal Palace, which were finished in approximately two years each. It is also important to note the purpose of the five building projects examined in this document, which changed also throughout the course of the Industrial Revolution to reflect the evolving levels of sophistication with which increased scientific and technologic advancements had given the world. The earliest of these structures were built for simple transportation purposes, and functioned primarily due to necessity of bridging and connecting disparate locations. By the end of this era, however, structures were raised in much less time for reasons of luxury -- such as to host specific events that may have had some cultural and economic significance (Plumley), but were by no means as vital to the livelihoods of residents as the building off tunnels and bridges were. In this respect, the Eiffel and the Crystal Palace demonstrate a definite trend towards modernity in which basic needs are taken care of and luxuries and superfluous concerns can be met as a result -- particularly since the former was widely financed by the French government (Ryan).

Another important factor related to all five of these construction projects is their relationship to the economy of the areas in which they were built. In a way, these economic reasons helped to magnify the growing economic climate of the time as advanced by Adam Smith and his treatise on the subject, the Wealth of Nations, which called for an open market (Smith, a 533). All of the structures created for transportation purposes (the Menai Straits Suspension Bridge, the Thames Tunnel and Iron Bridge) were necessary to connect parts of the United Kingdom with others so that residents could readily import and export materials and goods for economic benefit. The connection that these structures literally provided reflected the metaphorical connection of economic principles advanced by Smith in calling for a global system of economics led by capitalism, which was readily adopted by other theorists after his writing (Fusfeld 24). The works at the end of the Industrial Revolution, which were erected due to the efficacy of prefabricated parts and which included the Crystal Palace (Kostoff 594), also help to reflect the growing sense of a global market, since these structures could be transported across the world. Master builders such as Gustave Eiffel certainly helped to propagate this notion in his work on the Statue of Liberty -- which utilized prefabricated parts and was originally constructed in France before being shipped to the United States for its permanent location. The usage of such technology helped to denote the progression towards modernity and a change from contemporary architecture (Loyrette 116). Although monuments such as the Crystal Palace, Eiffel Tower, and even the Statue of Liberty are more indirect means of economic measures since people tend to view them for the sake of novelty and for pleasure, the exchange of construction between countries with even this amount of economic benefits definitely adheres to Smith's principles.

Additionally, it is interesting to note the role that communication played in the increasing globalization that the Industrial Revolution provided. With international communication easily facilitated by inventions such as the telegraph and the telephone, commerce and exchange between nations became considerably more expedient. Additionally, the technological prowess of coal and steam engines that allowed for steam-powered ships and a readily accessible railway system allowed for vital construction materials to be transplanted with a speed that was demonstrated in the construction swiftness of the Eiffel Tower and the Crystal Palace. Countries such as England had more steam-powered devices than those utilizing water at the end of the 1800's (Crafts 344).

The swiftness with which the construction of the Eiffel Tower and the Crystal Palace were completed reflect other valuable changes in management that took place during this epoch. The propensity to utilize mass production, which would later become perfected via the assembly line process during the machine age and was typified by the factory process (Hutt), played a direct role in the creation of the prefabricated parts that these structures incorporated. The facilitation of mass production was one of the most important aspects of the Industrial Revolution, particularly when one examines its effect on the relatively inexpensive rendering of different varieties of iron. Virtually all of the five projects mentioned in this section utilized copious amounts of wrought or cast-iron, which can all be attributed to management's innovation of mass production and the factory process which engendered it. Other mass produced products early on in this period included engines for water craft (Osbourn 106). Significantly, mass production was another concept that was advocated by Smith (Mejia 20) and would indelibly change the construction industry (Kostoff 594)

It is due to the various innovations in management, transportation, and construction technology that the master builders of this time were not simply limited to the erecting of architecture. Even some of the most noted during this period, such as Joseph Paxton, spent a good deal of his career gardening and creating somewhat unconventional architectural works, such as elaborate fountains (Chadwick 31). When one examines the importance of the swift production of iron in raising all five of these building projects, the work of Abraham Darby and his ironworks factory in England becomes all the more eminent. Darby was also renowned for his management techniques which emphasized rewards over punishments and were known for placating his workers who then increased their productivity, as well as for his work on Iron Bridge. In addition to his work on the Menai Straits Suspension Bridge, Thomas Telford provided designs for a number of canals and other transportation constructs during the 18th and 19th centuries as a public works surveyor (Bellis), and helped to pioneer some of the earliest work with iron. Isamabard Brunel was another master builder who constructed things other than traditional buildings. In addition to providing work with prefabricated parts for governmental purposes (National Archives), Brunel also was responsible for the building of a number of ships and transportation structures including aqueducts, bridges, and even an underwater tunnel (Wilson 202-203).

5.Renaissance Conclusion (Please help to add 850 words)

Please use existing references from sections 1 to 4. New reference is not required. A total of 20 references are needed

Perhaps the Renaissance was most notable for its varied contributions to the concept of project management. Several factors influenced project management during the Renaissance through to the seventeenth century. For one thing, algebra and the decimal method changed the way accounting was done (Morris). In addition, the skilled labour came from the guilds. Some of the building -- for example, at Florence -- was in fact controlled by wool and stonemason guilds. What is interesting is that the guilds, for the first time in project history, organised competitions to make design and building decisions. This reflected the new Renaissance attitude towards innovation and ingenuity of design and style. It further reflected the social context of capitalism that emphasized competition and was aided by international trade and via sea voyages (Donkin 169).

Other general trends in management may have had an impact on labour. The so-called Protestant work ethic turned hard work into a virtue and affected conceptions of labor (Wren (25-8). If the workers and builders adopted this attitude, they might have found themselves more motivated by higher goals to do a good job. This notion coincided with Calvin's emphasis on punctuality that he fostered midway through the 16th century (Pozzy). In addition, there was a rising individualism that told people they were more active and influential in shaping their lives. The knowledge-based economy (Eisenstein) provided by the moveable type of the printing press informed this disciple as well. Finally, the process of work moved towards further specification and efficiency with reductionism, which dissected the production process and eliminated wasteful elements. At the end of the day, there were still hard-working skilled labourers from the guilds who plied their trade honestly in pursuing the master builder's aims and designs.

It is possible that the master builders adopted the Machiavellian attitude of self-interest and power. Not applied for political purposes but to building, this makes sense in the Renaissance context where builders strove for reputation to distinguish themselves from others and thus acquire new building contracts as a reward. The Machiavellian emphasis on realism and expedients is relevant as well, since the moral aspect of the master builder faded while the concern for practical real-life problem solving heightened, despite the controversy of these ideals (Birely 14). The master builder was neither conceived of as an honourable or chivalrous knight nor as a moral political sage whose temperament and moral character defined his position. Rather, the master builder was renowned simply on the basis of the skills he brought to the job, although it is doubtful that he cared more about being feared or violent than about being admired and respected by his labour force, consultants, and assistants. In this sense, he fulfilled the Machiavellian ideal, free of moral judgment, if he could complete the project with excellence and thus win some form of power for himself. This may have been the motive behind much of Renaissance leadership and engineering.

St. Peter's required many different master builders over its centuries of construction, such as Bramante, Sangallo, Michelangelo, della Porta, and Bernini. All these builders worked independently but under church authority and with a church budget, beginning in the mid-15th century (Bond, Mar, Robison 429). The builders altered the design occasionally, such as with the addition of Colonnades (Steiger), because it involved grafting a new, more magnificent domed structure onto an existing basilica, although Michelangelo in the end re-emphasized the original design.

The master builder Brunelleschi demonstrated much about the work of Renaissance master builders. He was hired to build the dome without previous architectural experience and on the strength of his design proposal, which won in a competition and was based on structural solutions utilized by the Romans (Walker). This method itself looked forward to later procedures for bidding on construction jobs, although now no one would hire an inexperienced contractor. Brunelleschi was also granted freedom to be innovative. His management of new building processes was not discouraged but encouraged. The safety record on site was impressive despite the fact that no centre scaffolding was used, which helped in posterity's regard for the mounting of the dome as one of the greatest structural accomplishments of his time period (Loulakis 46). Crucially as well, Brunelleschi designed instruments for building. He was not only an architect but an inventor of machines. This was encompassed in his job description and reflected the general Renaissance mentality. Finally, Brunelleschi was part of the tradition. He believed fervently that the designer should also be the builder, involved in all aspects and phases of the work. He did not separate the role of architect from that of craftsman or engineer.

What is most clear in the Renaissance is the renewed concept of separating design from construction. This notion was present in the Byzantine age with the clear distinction between architect, manager, and engineer. It becomes more defined in this period with Alberti's rebellion against the master builder tradition, which is one of the first such instances recorded in history (Jackson 7). His participation in the construction of Santa Maria Novella was strictly on the design end. He sent his designs through a moderator to the work site where the engineers and builders worked. Alberti did not supervise the construction. His philosophy was that design was a specialised field that did not require the designer to be familiar with materials or working methods, which were better known by skilled craftsmen like master masons. In other words, he saw design as distinct from implementation. It is likely that his education had not been through the trade guilds but remained on the intellectual level. This was the version of the debate that most clearly presaged the changes in the Industrial Revolution, where Alberti's view triumphed over that represented by Brunelleschi.

Although the Italian Renaissance is widely noted for its advancements in art, architecture, science, and the revival of knowledge and traditions that extended through the Greek and Romans of antiquity, these developments could not have been made without a solid economic system in place to facilitate these luxuries. That system was largely based on commerce, as the different towns in Italy enjoyed their location as being one of the trading nexus' of the world. The profits from such commerce enabled the various cities that directly affected the Renaissance, Florence Siena and Venice, to quite literally afford the lavish construction projects mentioned in this section that otherwise served no true utilitarian purpose. Virtually all of these projects were ecclesiastical in nature, and do not expressly require innovative double domes (such as at St. Peter's Basilica) and lavish new facades (Orlandi 7) to assist people in their daily worship. But due to the economic prosperity enjoyed in various parts of Italy at this time, people could spare the luxury of competitions for the most creative or efficacious means of adding to or creating such religious structures. An excellent example of this fact is the work that was performed on St. Peter Basilica church, which spanned approximately 120 years to refurbish and is considered one of the loftiest Christian churches in existence (Fletcher 719). During the course of this time, several well-known architects rotated in the position as chief architect, including Michelangelo and Rafael; the renovation effort was initially designed by Bramante who based it on imagery related to a Greek crucifix (St. Peter's Basilica). The cost of employing these laborers, and the numerous men required to actually furnish the construction effort, was quite considerable, and all the more so when one realizes the somewhat exorbitant nature of the renovation. It features the largest dome world, has approximately 50 alters that have been decorated by some of the most renowned artists in the Renaissance (including Bernini and Michelangelo) (St. Peter's Basilica), and is substantially larger than the original church which is said to house the remains of the apostle Peter. The costs for all of this work, the vast majority of which was cosmetic and included the employment and salaries of several men to accommodate the innovation of a moveable scaffolding, required a solid economy that was provided for by commerce, international trade, and banking families such as the Medici, one of the most affluent in Europe at the time (de Roover 5). In some respects, the influence of monetary matters in religion is underscored by the Reformation, in which many people felt there was too much debauchery between economics and Catholicism.

In keeping with the motif of religion that nearly all of these buildings discussed in this segment were built or modified for, it is essential to note the role that economics played in ecclesiastic principles during this time. An excellent example of the synthesis of economics and religion can be found in the Medici family, one of the most powerful in Florence in terms of economic clout. This family not only produced several banking and record keeping innovations, had several branches of its financial institutions in various parts of Italy, but also had a number of Popes in its family tree both before and after the (Renaissance Medici Family). There philanthropic interest consisted in patronizing many of the artists and artisans responsible for some of the Renaissance's more notable work.

Much of the international commerce that took place in Italy was fueled by mercantilist principles which, undoubtedly aiding those who ventured to the southern country, was of little benefit to Italy itself since the country was fragmented into separate cities and kingdoms. However, mercantilist principles only increased with the discovery of the New World near the turn of the 15th century, and Italy was able to benefit from greater international trade and different nations attempting to cash in on the imperialist trends that the sighting of the American continent fostered particularly during the 16th to 18th centuries (LaHaye).

The revival of several works of knowledge that were originally written in antiquity directly inspired the designs and principles of engineering that were responsible for much of the architecture accomplished during the Renaissance. In addition to works relating to astronomy and other sciences, the field of architecture benefitted from a resurgence of the work of Vitruvius, whose De Architectura inspired many of the designers who worked on the building projects reviewed within this document. The Roman's treatise on architecture had a substantial impact on Palladio, who utilized the former's manuscript as the source of inspiration for his own work of literature on the subject, the Four Books of Architecture, and for his work on La Rotonda. The result is that Palladio was one of the most highly regarded architects of the Renaissance (Giovanni) Many of the conceptions of a simple, refined style with little ornamentation and classical appeal that typified the creations of Palladio (Venice's Palladian Architecture), Michelangelo, Bramante, and Alberti were expressly denoted within Vitruvius' manuscript. Although La Rotandoa was one of the few architectural pieces that was created for domestic rather than ecclesiastic purposes, the architectural theory which Palladio ascertained from De Architectura, and refined for his own work with villas, heavily influenced this project. The Roman and Greek origins of the style that these villas were created with is readily apparent when one observes the basic structure of this building, which is shaped like a temple above its roof and is supported by a wide base that reinforces a deliberate symmetry (Villa Almerico) on the part of the architect.