New Reference Is Not Required.

New reference is not required. A total of 15 references are needed

Baroque architecture from the late seventeenth century onwards was fully determined by the cultural interests of the Christian churchs, whether Catholic or Anglican. It was an expressive form designed to counteract the Reformation view of simplicity. As part of the counter-Reformation, the Baroque was reactionary and wished to reassert the dominance of the church through the display of florid, dynamic, and powerful forms that would move its audience to recognize ecclesiastical power. To this end, it invented a style based on curves and emotionality, eliminating a more linear and transcendent style common in Roman predecessors which was meant to replicate harmony and peace. The Baroque wanted noise and dynamism.

Out of this cultural requirement, the unique form of the risalit was used to build facades. This changed design, support planning, and material strength (Cohen). Room designs were altered to allow impressions of greater space and more curving shapes. The technology used to do this was not radically different, although some new mechanical devices might have been used along with innovative techniques in brick manufacture and laying (Marconi).

In addition, the Baroque both reflected and amplified the rigid social structure, which combined with global changes in finance and commerce to create a desire in the new rich to exert their power through building and to gain power using building (Houston and Snell).

During this period, European culture experienced the Scientific Revolution. This rational and empirical shift away from recognized authority had profound implications. The changes brought about in scientific methodology and modes of reasoning with Bacon and Descartes had a formative impact on Newtonian natural science. The laws of nature started to be explained, beginning with the mathematical formulation of the theories of gravity, motion, thermodynamics, and entropy. The development of algebra and logarithms alongside the establishment of heliocentrism and technological advances in calculators, microscopes, telescopes, and other tools allowed nature to be viewed, described, and understood in unprecedented ways.

As such, the Scientific Revolution and the construction that typified it represent a supreme irony. The zeitgeist during this time period was one in which the prowess of man was displayed through a newfound appropriation of concepts and notions that were secular and not related (for one of the few times in history) to the presence of an ecclesiastical figure. However, virtually all of the most noted construction projects during this time were for religious purposes. A median between this dichotomy may very well exist, however. As many of the major churches erected during this time unequivocally reflected the financial standing and influence of the Christian religions they served (Hersey), one may argue that such structures more reflected the pride of man than the God they were purportedly created for.

More importantly, the principles of science that this period produced actually influenced construction technology and principles of engineering in particular. Much of the science during this era was actually based on the Aristotelian tradition (Grant). Newton's theories into the law of motion placed an emphasis on the structuring of materials while his advancements in calculus influenced the field of mathematics (Stilwell 159). Bernoulli's theorems were relevant to concepts of geometry and equilibrium that were essential to design and construction efforts. Bernouli worked with Leon Euler on a theory related to the principles of structure (Heymen 69). Additionally, Euler himself worked on a formula to assist engineers with elements of compression (Bradley and Sandifier). All of these scientific application helped to separate notions of building technology from architecture, as engineers became more absorbed with the former (Cohen).

These principles of geometry are exceedingly palpable in the efforts of Boromini in the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane. Like most Baroque architecture, this church purposefully avoids the straight lines and classical appeal of the designs popularized during the Italian Renaissance for a symmetrical, ovular shape that presents a number of curving, swirling patterns (Francesco Borromini and His Architecture). The intricacies of these designs were emphasized by the limited space the architect had to work with due to the church's diminutive size (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane). As is typical with most Roman Baroque efforts the roof of this structure is capped with a dome -- although Borromini chose an elliptical one to emphasize the presence of more elliptical designs as well as to provide the central source of lighting in the edifice (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane). The highly ornamented church also featured a number of symbolizes from classical Roman buildings, to reinforce the notion that it was created in the Roman Baroque style.

Another chief characteristic of Scientific Revolution architecture (and that of the Roman Baroque style in particular) was its deliberate purpose to invoke a spaciousness and enormity of dimensions that was indicative of the power of the Catholic Church that was dominant throughout parts of Europe at the time. There are several aspects of St. Peter's Square that are in alignment with these architecture principles, such as its ovular design and open space. The colonnades found on the outskirts of the square itself were quite common in Baroque architecture, and helped to emphasize the immense sizes that architects sought after. Additionally, this work was indicative of much of the Baroque work reared during this period in that it represented a restoration effort -- specifically to attempt to provide a degree of decoration and ornamentation for the area that surrounded St. Peter's Basilica. As such, its architect -- Bernini -- was circumscribed in what sort of effects he could produce (St. Peter's Square). For instance, he produced an immense amount of detail in his limited space, which included the erection of 140 statues of religious figures created by the designer and his students (St. Peter's Square)

Generally speaking, however, despite the Scientific Revolution that occurred at the same time, construction technologies did not change much in the Baroque period. This can be explained by a cultural lag. The scientific changes were so important that it took years to ingest their significance fully. As a result, the impact occurred later, during the Industrial Revolution. This is not to say that Baroque buildings did not reflect the historical conditions of the time. Christopher Wren's St. Paul's Cathedral (1667 -- 1711 AD) clearly represented a logical Baroque worldview. Both the interior and the exterior of this structure are large and "imposing" (St. Paul's Cathedral); one of the considered designs was to shape the structure similar to a cross. The sheer size of the structure helped to allude to the affluence of the Church of England that commissioned it and paid for it in part with the levying of taxes (Beard 25). It had been damaged and refurbished several times previously before Wren was able to restore it (St. Paul's Cathedral). Unlike Roman Baroque architecture, that of the English Baroque style was not quite as curvaceous, and more reflected some of the symmetry that was popularized during the Renaissance. A critical component of St. Paul's Cathedral was the crowning dome, which helped to underscore the might of the Church of England and which is similar to that found on St. Paul's Cathedral -- although the former is made of three layers, as opposed to the two in the latter.

Another work of architecture that alludes to the grandeur and largess with which buildings were designed during this period includes the Palace of Versailles, which was long considered a model royal residence (Palace of Versailles). Its influence extended beyond France to other imperial palaces throughout Europe (Baroque Architecture).

Industry 5. Conclusion (Please help to add 900 words)

Please use existing references from sections 1 to 4. New reference is not required. A total of 20 references are needed

The cultural changes during the nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution were perhaps more than in any previous era forces for change in construction technology. The way things were built was irrevocably altered as a result of the wholesale societal changes that took place, spurred on by new forms of social organisation, scientific thought patterns, and commerce (Landow). The critique of received authority which began in the Scientific Revolution came to fruition during the Industrial Revolution and its building programs. It is arguable that this was the most important era in the history of human work and building because of the realisation of new designs, new materials, and new practises made possible through mechanisation and mass production.

The two main cultural forces during this time were capitalism and urbanisation. Capitalism was linked with a global system of colonialism, made possible through Renaissance exploration. The Europeans had sailed all over the world and set up colonies and shipping networks, often violently and exploitatively, which had introduced new types of products, a new wealth, and a new political power into Europe. By nature, the capitalist system is expansionist. It seeks new markets and new ways to find cheap labour and transportation. During the Industrial Revolution capitalism underwent its greatest expansion and became the sole viable form of economic exchange in Europe. It also set up a conflict between labour and capital, a variation of the old conflict between peasants and nobility. Because it was based on a competitive "free" market, capitalism inherently sought labour-saving and time-saving devices by which it might increase efficiency and productivity. In other words, manufacturing and production processes were sped up through specialisation (division), automation, mechanisation, routinisation, and other alienating forms of production in which the human being was less a personality at work and more a replaceable cog in a much larger system. This changed the way construction products were made. The concept of capitalism itself envisioned the mass production system and then made it a reality.

Furthermore, with the rise of the factory and the mechanisation of labour, farming began a decline and people flocked to the cities to find other types of work. Added to this there were advances in medicine which meant that population increased in urban areas, creating congestion and the rise of a new type of city. As a cultural force, urbanisation required new forms of uniform housing that demanded quick and cheap construction. They needed to be able to house numerous people as well. Thus, much of architecture was driven by the changing cultural needs.

The most important cultural factor remained capitalism. This shaped political ideas to allow all the radical changes to occur. Capitalism required the exploration and exploitation of natural resources for energy to fuel its projects and for new products to sell. It also required new transportation networks to get its products and materials moved around quickly and easily. This led to a demand for bridges, such as over the Menai Straits, canals, and railroads. The whole system of capitalism, based on competition between services and products, urbanisation, and the reorganisation of modes of production, was driven to create buildings for its new industries and employees. The new methods could be carried out easily. What was important was that the cultural context of these new socio-economic realities formed the groundwork of the Industrial Revolution and its building programs, expertise applications, and capacities.

Scientifically, it started with power, which was made possible by natural sources of power such as coal and steam (Houston and Snell 473-92). Science and the cultural change went hand in hand and it is hard to say which came first. Nevertheless, the science of the Industrial Revolution and prior to it created the technological skills and thought patterns that made possible new forms of work organisation and the single most important achievement, the steam engine, which received significant advancements due to the efforts of Thomas Newcomen (Brown 60) and James Watt (Hunter and Bryant 42).

Steam engines burnt large quantities of coal or wood rather than relying on human energy. They increased the output of machines to pull, lift, push, and move far in excess of any previous cranes or pulleys. Dirt could be moved by machines without hand shovels. Carts and animals were replaced by steam-powered locomotives that could carry more and move quickly. Human labour became more and more obsolete, except as it was necessary to manipulate machine-driven processes. The labour force was reduced. Productivity rose. The standard of living and expectations typically rose as well, although the way people made money changed. The cost of mass-produced goods went down because of greater efficiency and productivity.

These new forms of technology based on steam power required roads and canals, so the landscape changed. Machines were also used to build roads. Tracks were laid and bridges were built to allow machines to travel. All this meant that materials for building could be easily, cheaply, and quickly shipped from distance to the work site. Speed and ease were the keywords. Within this context of massive cultural, scientific, and technological upheaval, construction was revolutionized in parallel ways, taking advantage of all the new motives and advances.

The new forms of technology directly affected the very nature of construction. An excellent example of this fact is provided in the construction process of the Thames Tunnel, which was largely enabled due to the steam-powered tunnel shield (Landow). This machine enabled laborers to build this tunnel more than 20 meters underwater, which was the first such structure constructed beneath a river for the sake of transportation. The idea for the Thames Tunnel was partly based on an incomplete construction of the Thames Archway (Aaseng 28). The efficacy of the steam engine that powered the tunnel shield would be reprised numerous times in the ensuing years in England, with a number of structures created that utilized machines descended from that used on the Thames Tunnel.

The aforementioned tunnel was just one of several new structures that was built during the Industrial Revolution and which reflected the increasing technology and its applications. Refinements in scientific processes were responsible for the ubiquity of construction with forms of iron -- an innovation that is distinct to this time period. Due to the pliable nature of this substance (Gillespie 4), which was both light as well as durable, it quickly became the construction material of choice as evinced by other structures that the Industrial Revolution engendered, such as the first cast-iron constructed arch bridge, Iron Bridge.

Another boon of the popularity of iron construction erected during this period was the degree of ornamentation designers could degree structures with, since this substance was highly manipulative. Telford's efforts on the Menai Straits Suspension Bridge were renowned for the decorous quality of the ornamentation he finished this project with, which was a direct result of construction with wrought iron and imbued the structure with a certain grace (Kostof 599). Iron imperfections could be fixed with simple welding (Yescas-Gonzalez & Bahadeshia). Menai Straits also reflected the spirit of progress and innovation that characterized most construction during this era due to its incorporation of design principles of suspension. These principles were also readily influenced by the architect's ability to construct with iron (Kovach).

Although the relative novelty of utilizing the wrought-iron variety of this substance was responsible for a number of defects in Iron Bridge, the process with which this material and others that would characterized construction of this era, such as glass and the usage of prefabricated parts, would be refined was evinced midway through the 19th century with the erection of the Crystal Palace. The innovative process of using prefabricated parts allowed for this transportable structure to be assembled with relative ease (Kostoff 594). It was one of the first structures to utilize not only iron, but also an abundance of plate glass, as its construction materials (Hitchcock 184). The structure's usage of wood framed glass sheets (Hobhouse 34) was structured via an iron beams and stanchions made of wood.

Prefabricated parts also assisted in the construction of the Eiffel Tower, which represented yet another new type of edifice that was distinct for its wide spaces, immense height, and elevator. The widespread availability of these parts was largely facilitated by the system of mass production which was created during this era and changed the nature of construction (Kostoff 594). This structure was supported by iron as well, and reflected the employment of other emerging construction technologies, as its foundation was anchored in cement which was more viable following developments pioneered by Joseph Aspidin earlier in the century (Prentice 171). The availability of prefabricated parts was also fuelled in part by the technological increases in transportation such as the burgeoning railway system and the ubiquity of steamships (Hackett) throughout the latter portion of the 19th century. As such, construction materials could be transported a lot quicker than before, particularly due to innovations in communication that included the development of the telegraph and the telephone. Therefore, the management of the design and construction process could be facilitated more readily than at any other point in history.

The innovations in construction materials, the different forms of iron, variations of concrete, and the engendering of steel which the Bessemer process was responsible for, can be traced to scientific developments that proceeded naturally from the Scientific Revolution. With the ideology of the Enlightenment particularly influential during the formative years of the Industrial Revolution, the scientific process was furthered by advancements in the printing press which allowed for the rapid dissemination of scientific journals and popularity of fields such as natural science (Spary 289-293), as well as the furtherance of principles of astronomy and chemistry. Developments in the latter, which peaked with Lavoisier's (Lavoisier) theory of combustion of oxygen, helped to fuel the processes that eventually resulted in the widespread availability of the construction materials of this time.

A look at the progression of the building projects reviewed in this section indicates that throughout this period of history, improvements in science, construction technology and architectural principles allowed for a more rapid erection of structures. It also indicates that the structures were also designed with an increasing degree of ornamentation (McRae) that would eventually result in a counter-movement, the Arts and Craft Movement, that would eventually seek a return to principles of nature that was the opposite of values propagated by industrialization (King 47) and the adherence of materials and structures to simply represent their functions.

Machine Age

5. Conclusion (Please help to prepare a 1200 words Conclusion)

Please use existing references from sections 1 to 4. New reference is not required. A total of 15 references are needed

The Machine Age is largely noted for its heralding of the principles of Modernism that typified the vast majority of the construction projects of note. Modernist architectural principles deliberately sought to embrace a high degree of functionality influenced by their design. The plethora of different types of Modernist architectural styles, however, was able to provide a significant amount of variation in the interpretation of the basic principles of simplicity and utilitarianism that this genre of architecture was noted for. Some works largely observed these principles in a decidedly minimalist fashion, such as Mies van der Rohe's towers at Lake Shore Drive apartments outside of Chicago that incorporated the skin and bones technique (Filler) with their stark, red bricks and sheer glass lighting. The widespread usage of glass, which became prevalent in construction near the middle of the 19th century, was largely fuelled by innovations in construction technology that accounted for the emergence of the skyscraper. These towering edifices of relatively modern dimensions in length and width accentuated by sometimes staggering vertical builds (Gerbrich), were enabled due to construction technology innovations related to the incorporation of steel and curtain walls. With improvements on the original Bessemer process (Spoerl) able to yield different varieties of steel in the early part of the 1900's, this light, durable substance was responsible for placing the weight of buildings on their foundations and the rest of the reinforcement, enabling non-load bearing walls (Sayley) or curtain walls relatively free of weight at were frequently built with glass. Not surprisingly, glass was one of the chief construction materials for four of the five projects mentioned in this section, four of which were skyscrapers.

The rapid manipulation of steel was just one of the many benefits of the scientific environment fostered during the Machine Age. With the advent of skyscrapers and their emphasis on functionality as horizontally accommodating means of office space -- often times augmented by use for retail space and machine storage equipment which was found in the Empire State Building and the Guranty Building -- a host of other new scientific achievements were used to provide furnishings Machine Age construction. Electricity was of immense aid to the lighting for many of these structures and was one of the primary accomplishments of the century (Constable), although more than one of the building projects designed in this section were purposefully built to accommodate workers with natural lighting -- such as the Fagus Factory, which represented the first time the complete facade of a structure was rendered with glassflat (Pevsner 4-5). However, electricity allowed for evening lighting, whereas other advancements, such as more modern elevators and the fostering of the heating an ventilation industry largely pioneered by efforts in air conditioning (invented in 1902 by William Carrier) (Price), directly influenced the viability of such tall structures due to reasons both pragmatic and relating to comfort.

As such, these innovations directly contributed to the utilitarian conceptions of Modernist architecture, which manifested itself in myriad applications.

New Objectivity's focus on functionality allowed for its rising popularity in Germany, primarily as a means of providing a revitalization of the appearance of this nation primarily before World War I. While utilizing an abundant amount of glass and steel structuring, New Objectivity architecture also featured a degree of angularity that helped to distinguish it from other forms of Modernism. No better example of this style exists than the Fagus Factory, which was extremely utilitarian in its means of fuelling industry as a shoe manufacturing site and which was executed by laborers in Deutscher Werkbund (Kunier). In addition to incorporating large quantities of glass (albeit in a high original way in which the sheer outside of the building seemed bereft of support), this building also elucidated advancements in structural engineering that were also indicative of the Machine Age, as its foundation utilized a form of compressed concrete. Various forms of concrete would assist in the reinforcement of building projects throught the 20th century; innovators with this substance included W.B. Wilkinson (Nedwell & Swamy 27) and Emil Morsch.

Other principles of architecture were conceived in direct opposition to the simplistic functionality of most modernist buildings. Both Art Deco and Art Nouveau were artistic movements that were largely reactionary in their embracement of aesthetics over the practicality of the corporate world that many skyscrapers erected during the Machine Age adhered to; the former of these initiated in France in the early part of the 20th century (Bevis 12). The Empire State Building was created in a distinctive Art Deco style; in fact this structure was largely patterned after the Reynolds Building in North Carolina (Covington) and adhered to the notions of symmetry and decoration associated with Art Deco. What was noteworthy about these varying takes on modernity was the fact that due to the nature of the construction erected during the Machine Age, which was largely influenced by the emergence of skyscrapers and the founding of premium office space to support the fledgling seeds of corporations, was that they were not able to distance themselves too far from the functionality that typified construction during this time.

In fact, some structures readily incorporated ornamental architectural principles with a definite adherence to utilitarianism, such as Sullivan's pioneering work on the Guranty Building, which was created with a definite sense of ornamentation aligned with the Art and Craft movement and is one of the first skyscrapers built (Frei). This style was responsible for the engendering of Art Nouveau, which strove to create a harmony with its natural surroundings that was typically not considered by several Modernist works of architecture. In opposition to the defined angularity and symmetry that characterized other forms of Modernism, Art Nouveau was characterized by a sense of style and ornamentation that was more free flowing. The influence of the Arts and Craft Movement was evinced within the Guranty Building by Sullivan's lavish ornamentation, which is found in the building's exterior and interior. The repetitive nature of the terracotta patterns helps to accentuate the inner walls of the structures, while the abundance of exterior ornamentation near the building's base helps to create a feeling of ascension when looking at it.

It is also interesting to note that the degree of utility for structures did not merely adhere to those that were for commercial use, as most skyscrapers were. Those for residential structures, including Lakeside Apartments and Unite d'Habitation were created to fulfil a sense of purpose for the tenants. This is particularly true of LeCorbusier's French masterpiece, which would go on to influence private housing for years to come as the precursor to the Brutalist movement (Banham 16). He created this residence as a virtual city, and designed different leves and space for a variety of amenities including school and health facilities, as well as grocery and retail space. Even the roof of this structure was appropriated to aid tenants, as it hosted social facilities such as a theatre and a swimming. Much of the construction was attributed to structural engineering innovations in concrete which was called beton brut (Unite d'Habitation). Van der Rohe's work on the Lakeshore Apartments was also designed to maximize utility for its residents. There is virtually no ornamentation or decoration on the inside (Harris) or the exterior of the structure, and the specific dimensions of the living quarters were designed to maximize space for dining and living rooms -- to provide the essential features needed for communal living.

Renaissance Culturally, emerging capitalism, the spirit of exploration and enterprise, and the Catholic Church were the predominant influences on construction during the Renaissance. There was a new openness to the world, a delayed consequence of the Crusades combined with augmented shipbuilding that allowed travel. There was a general attitude of adventure, innovation, and challenge to tradition. Even as the ancient classics were being taught with vigour, the educated struck out to conquer new realms for Europe, demonstrating outward expression rather than introversion. This represented as well the new capitalistic spirit of entrepreneurs and businessmen who had wrested power from the old feudal nobility. As part of this endeavour, new buildings were conceived that shattered all preconceptions, such as the dome on Florence Cathedral (1420 -- 1436 AD) (Castex 52). The church asserted its power simultaneously and turned to build its own most impressive base with St. Peter's Cathedral (1506 -- 1626 AD), intended to express and symbolize the eternal glory of Rome. Generally speaking, the building projects were inspired by the church, but the attitude needed to construct them was one of scientific openness and humanistic exploration. The glory went as much to men as to God.

The scientific experimentation of the Renaissance leads one to postulate innovative machinery and construction procedures. With the turn to empirical observation of natural processes, such as in Galileo's emphasis on geometry (Galilei 237-238), and the stress on methodical inquiry to solve problems, one expects that a similar trend would have influenced building. In fact, this turns out to be true. Construction technology to create Renaissance architecture included the reversible hoist, a mobile crane on rollers with a hoist, a lifting device with pincers, a bell-lifting device with a counterweight, screw-operated lifting devices, and pile drivers (the Sienese Engineers), with all of the energy used to operate these machines taken from human and animal labour. The renewed interest in scientific principles also enabled engineers to harness hydraulic power for machinery.

However, the most enduring example of this scientific influence was Brunelleschi's ox-hoist crane, which was considered a marvel by other Renaissance scientists. This device was designed for the construction of the Florence Cathedral dome. Using the power of hitched oxen circling a post, it not only increased the lifting capacity for materials (like stone beams and marble slabs) using far less power, but included a reversible gear that sped up the hoisting process far beyond anything before. Brunelleschi also invented machines (Brunelleschi 440) for lateral positioning of material. This was the radical innovation indicative of the Renaissance use of science that contributed to the future of engineering. Brunelleschi's construction is regarded as the origination of the Renaissance (Gartner 11).

Brunelleschi's dome was substantial in another way. His proposed method of construction reflected the audacity of the Renaissance. He claimed that he could build the dome without scaffolding or centring, which had never been done. The revolutionary method he improvised used herringbone masonry (Ross 97), by which stones were laid sloping inward, and was accomplished with teams of masons moving around the perimeter in successive rings. The dome was 44 meters wide and 113 meters high (Harness). In addition to this, the double-skinned dome he supervised was unique in its structural separation of the inner from the outer, which created a new style and enhanced its structural integrity (Gartner 88). Its octagonal vault form stands without buttresses, struts, or transverse chains, supported only by a skeleton of ribs freed from wall supports. This style and technology signified the end of medieval building (Walker 77).