Islamic Golden Age Was Open

¶ … Islamic Golden Age was open to the humanistic notions of individualism, liberalism, religious freedom, and cross-cultural exchange (Hassan). These notions influenced the management philosophies used by master builders, and created the idea of importing skilled Byzantine artisans to work on mosques, particularly in the area of decoration and mosaics. Such concepts can be readily identified in the construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus, which is widely acknowledged to have borrowed several essential elements from previously existing architectural styles, the most prevalent of which was Byzantine. Notwithstanding the actual shape and overall design of the structure, which was speculated to have descended from constructions in Constantinople and from general palatial architecture endemic to Byzantine building, a large degree of the artwork which adorned the mosque was Byzantine in origin as well. There are historical records of Byzantine emperors allocating both workmen and specific mosaics which were used in the construction and decoration of this particular structure. It is also importance to recognize the wide sphere of influence that the Grand Mosque of Damascus, which has been demonstrated to incorporate various pre-existing styles of construction, most notably Byzantine, had over the construction of subsequent Islamic mosques.

In addition, master builders used quarried stone such as marble in their buildings, which required lots of labour and stonemasons. The elaborate teak wood minbar at Qairouan had to be crafted by men highly skilled in detailed woodwork. Another fairly salient example of these construction methods deployed in the Islamic Golden Age can be found in the assembling of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, which has been hailed for its roof which, at the time of construction midway through the first millennium of A.D., was innovative in no small part due to the fact that it's roof was created entirely out of imported teak. The building, as overseen by Caliph Uthman bin Affa, was supported with a stone fortification as well; the stone was individually shaped by workers and sealed with a lime mortar, which was a technique which was fairly innovative for its time. It is also noteworthy to mention the diversity of the laborers who assembled this building during its construction in 706 A.D., who were known to be of both Syrian and Coptic descent. Additionally, architecture during the Islamic Golden Age saw a development of a unique geometrical decorative style in Islamic buildings, along with tiling, calligraphy, and garden designs. Their largest contribution to construction was perhaps the enduring legacy of the skilled trades and craftsmen who perfected these decorative techniques in sculpting, metallurgy, mosaics, wood, and other material artwork (Ousterhout).

The best picture we can get of the management style of Islamic master builders is in the work of Al-Ghazali, who wrote a crucial text on political leadership. In Nasihat, he stresses factors that were common to Islamic understandings of management and useful for project arrangement. First, he emphasised that communication channels should be open between the leader and the organisation, and repeatedly tested. Such openness would have meant a smoother flow of organised construction and less miscommunication. Naturally, there was a correlation between a civil leader such as an emperor, and a building project leader, such as a master builder. In comparison with the emperor, it would also mean that problems could be stopped before they happened if the master builder remained well informed of information that might affect decisions or the building process.

Secondly, he stressed like the Greeks before him that the leader was a moral emblem. His personal behaviour must be above reproach so as to maintain the morale of the workers. This was underpinned by the religious notion that leadership was a sacred duty to be executed correctly. If he knew that his building and his duty were divinely sanctioned like this, the master builder would likely have made the utmost effort towards perfection and discipline. The degree of attention to detail and of overall awareness of a project's completion can best be evidenced by the variety of roles incorporated into the position of architect during the erection of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, the Grand Mosque of Damascus, and the Great Mosque of Kairouan.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the master builders which were accredited with most of the designing and construction of the architecture for which the Islamic Golden Ages is revered for took a decidedly utilitarian approach to the erection of these monuments. In addition to building both ecclesiastical and secular structures, master builders commonly conceived of the plans for the constructs and implemented them as well, effectively laboring as both architect and engineer. In modern times these two areas of labor are considered to be distinct from one another, yet throughout the greater part of the first millennium A.D., there was no such distinction between these duties throughout the Islamic world.

Accordingly, there was a greater amount of responsibility placed on the master building during this aforementioned era due to the wide variety of duties which were performed by this position. For example, when Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid built what many regard to be his masterpiece, the Grand Mosque of Damascus, he was responsible for virtually every aspect the building's construction from its initial planning to the completion of its dome. It can even be argued that there are certain aesthetic or utilitarian advantages to having one person conceive and construct an edifice, since there is a continuity of ideas and a manifestation of personal pride in the work which may not necessarily exist when the labor for such a structure is designed by one and actually carried out by another. As a result of such a management philosophy, elegant mosques were built in the Islamic Golden Age.

5. Conclusion (Please elaborate to 950 words)

One of the significant contributions of Byzantine culture to theories of management came in preserving and transmitting ancient theories. Although their scribes made improvements to grammar and writing, it is unclear how these affected management. Nonetheless, a number of points can be made about labour organisation. The earliest form of European trade guilds developed in the Byzantine era. Training schools or workshops made it possible for apprentices to learn a trade and move up through experience (Ousterhout 52). While their organisation is not well-known, they provided skilled masons for construction of the Hagia Sophia, probably working in competition against one another in large teams supervised by middle managers. They also provided skilled mosaicists for later mosques.

The influence of these artisans, and the works of artistic value which they produced, should not be underestimated, particularly in regards to the construction of edifices such as the Hagia Irene, the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, as well as the Hagia Sophia. One of the most salient of the reconstruction changes applied to the Hagia Irene following its dilapidation due to an eighth century earthquake and instituted by Emperor Constantine V was the furnish its interior with artwork including mosaics. As if to underscore this point, the church is currently used in modern times as a museum The purveyance of artistic designs was even more eminent in the presentation of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, which is largely known for its series of graphic artwork which lined its walls, many of which was destroyed and many of which still endures. The lifelike depictions of various scenes of religion and figures both gothic and Byzantine dutifully reflect the labor of the artists who were trained in the aforementioned trade workshops, or whose craft was directly descended from just such a practice to enable the church to feature, at various times in its history, representation of Jesus's parables and crucifixion. This tradition of art, its creation and its practice, is one of the foremost contributions of the European trade guilds which were developed during the Byzantine era.

Not surprisingly, the primary foundation which the management of the construction of architecture was based upon can be traced back to the religious influence of the church as an organizing power. Christianity in particular played a broad role in the social hierarchy and its management which inherently was made manifest in architectural works. The privately financed largess of a number of benefactors contributed to the virtually unparalleled influence of this particular religion during the Byzantine Empire, instituted its management from the leaders of the church to those of martial affairs.

Consequently, the erection of the Hagia Irene, the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuova and the Hagia Sophia were initially completed to supplement the management prowess and influence of the Byzantine religion. The Hagia Irene in particular played a substantial part in the facilitation of ecclesiastical power in this region during this time period, as it was first used as a location for meetings of the First Council of Constantinople, in addition to serving as a place for religious worship. Additionally, it should be noted that this church was a symbol of the assertion of Christianity and its hegemony in the region, because it was built upon what Christians considered to be a pagan temple.

In terms of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, its creation was intrinsically related to the propagation of management of the Byzantine Empire, primarily since it was originally built as the chapel of the palace of King Theodoric in the 6th century. The display of the various religious artwork effectively served to reinforce the fact that such faith was the governing power in the land, which the church itself reflected merely in its principle usage as a house of worship. The Hagia Sophia served a similar purpose, as it was built during one of the periods of devastation inflicted upon the Hagia Irene and was also viewed as a symbol of not only Christianity's reign, but also that of Emperor Justinian who commissioned the work.

One of the most important professions which could be learned at the trade guilds which was that of master builder, which included several lengthy stages of work which could eventually take youths into the chief senior architects of the day. There is a substantial amount of evidence that can be seen regarding the Byzantine influence in the position of the master builder, who was called a mechanikos. It is assumed that this meant something like architect as distinct from the group of mechanopois who were engineers. This distinction is interesting, since for the first time there is a clear separation between design and engineering. The division should not be overstated, however, since at the Hagia Sophia the mechanikos was present on site and involved with construction management. In fact, for this church there were two master builders, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, both "distinguished mathematical physicists" with extensive civil engineering experience (Freely and Cakmak 94). While they had the scientific knowledge to design and direct construction, they were not the overarching managers. The church had control over the building, including its design concept and construction methods. The church appointed a manager in an oversight role according to later Byzantine laws. This was a government official without connections to architecture who had the master builder under his command (Ousterhout 43 -- 8). The manager was a liaison between the workers and the client and vice versa. As a result, the master builders were freed from administrative work as never before, although with the division of power between architect and engineer they also did not wield as much authority.

6. Construction (Please elaborate to 1350 words)

The vast majority of Byzantine buildings, particularly those which served any sort of political and theological purpose, were culturally determined not only by the new religion which dominated this particular region, but were also influenced by numerous Roman and Eastern facets. Following Constantine I's ascension to power and the numerous visions he had regarding symbolism which is today widely accepted as denoting Christianity, the religion of Byzantium officially become Christianity. As a result, most of its greatest projects were churches like the Hagia Sophia (532 -- 537 AD), as well as other widely regarded structures including the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo and the Hagia Irene. Hagia Sophia, however, is perhaps the greatest example of early Christian architecture and set the tone for all later cathedral construction. It includes decorative architectural influences from Persia, although it is firmly based in the tradition of Roman domed temples such as the Pantheon. This Persian influence points towards the cultural fact of skilled Byzantine diplomacy and its economic centrality in the world of trade at the time. In fact, later the wealth of the empire would be used to fund the Crusades, which spawned new types of castles. Thus, culture was influential in multiple ways for architecture, as can be readily evidenced from the future it played in the construction and the maintenance of the Hagia Irene, which was highly influential in the spread of Christianity, particularly since it was one of the first churches built in Constantinople. Built under the auspices of Constantine I himself, this church was the location for numerous religious ceremonies, all of which helped to propagate the fledgling Christian faith. Despite the fact that the Hagia Irene has endured a lengthy history of reconstruction, it should be noted that virtually every attempt to rebuild this edifice (except for towards the mid and end of the second millennia when it was transformed into a museum) included a large degree of Christian culture.

Christian culture also played a large part in the formation of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, which has housed a number of different, and at times conflicting, denominations during its particular tenure of existence. These differences, which included eastern and western beliefs, as well as Arian and other varying denominations, are most sufficiently demonstrated in the motifs which have been housed within the domicile over the years. In fact, much of this artwork has been deemed the most valuable contribution of this particular structure to the architectural world. While some of the images which were housed or which are still housed within this edifice depict Christ at various points of his chronicle in the New Testament, including his parables, his Passion as well as his crucifixion and resurrection, they also portray various rulers (of Christian faith, invariably, such as Justinian I) and both personages and symbols of Catholicism.

In Byzantine times there was a return to brick building. The technologies used were the same as the Romans, along with some of the traditional and important architectural forms like the vault and the buttress, which were extensive components of Byzantine building. Specifically, these traits can be seen and identified in constructs such as the Basillica of Sant's Apollinare Nuova, which was primarily built of bricks constructed of a simple format. This trend demonstrates an adherence to previous Greco-Roman traditions, which can be very clearly seen in the work of the Hagia Irene, as a number of its facets, including its galleries, narthex and atrium, its spaces and nave and dual aisles, are directly related to basilicas constructed during Roman times, which is not surprising since Constantine I was Roman Emperor when he commissioned the erection of this edifice. Somewhat similarly, there are features of Greek architecture which highly influenced certain parts of the construction of the Basillica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, and its monograms, in particular, which were noted to be of a Greek design. The architects who conceived of the Hagia Sophia were also Greek, and employed a fair amount of the architectural concepts of their native country in the assembling of this building. This proclivity is perhaps best demonstrated in the particular substances they used to erect the edifice out of, which included brick, stone, and even gold. The bricks were procured from a specific island, and sealed with an unusual mortar which very well may have contributed to parts of the church's collapse not long after it had been erected. Still, such a means of creating mortar were certainly novel for this particular time period, and can be considered another scientific achievement which can be attributed to the Byzantine Empire during this particular epoch, which certainly influential in the architecture (specifically that for religious edifices) for subsequent generations. These Roman and Greek traits apply to both to building and to the mathematics and science that were used to conceive of building design. Had the Byzantines not kept alive the older scientific and intellectual traditions -- such as Aristotle, Galen, and Ptolemy -- they would not have possessed the knowledge to build as they did.

However, the one exception to this reliance on past science was in the creation of a new method for dome construction. The pendentives used to raise a circular dome on a square of arches were made possible by an advance in the mathematics of angles and arches, the latter of which were constructed to subtly transition into the above dome (Ousterhout). The transition between the square and the dome was made by curving triangles buttressed by masonry half-domes. At the time of construction, the master builders were uncertain that this new method would work. Yet it did, and a different way of supporting a dome down into the piers through curving triangles was invented. Out of this revolution came a new fusion of form: the marriage of a congregational basilica to a vaulted double-shell dome (Rodley 71). It is also significant to recognize the innovations which the builders of the Hagia Sophia achieved in the laying the foundation for this fairly magnificent, utilitarian work of art. But it was the positioning of majority of the weight of the building upon the corners which were supported by piers that was another technical triumph, which would play a significant role in attaching the dome to it.

The shortcomings of knowledge were clear at Hagia Sophia. Because this dome was erected under pressure of speed, the mortar did not bind properly. As a result of this structural weakness and an earthquake, the dome partially collapsed in 558 AD. This led to the first major reconstruction of the central dome from AD 558 to 562 (Mainstone 126). During this reconstruction, window openings were added around the bottom of the dome as an expedient for warding off cracking. The point is that Byzantine structures in some cases had limited stability due to the inadequate scientific knowledge of their builders. Although it certain is accurate to cite the shortcoming of architectural principles when citing the failure of certain features of the Hagia Sophia to withstand the ravages of time and nature, a surfeit of zeal on the part of the architects who built this building may be faulted as well. The foundation was laid far too rapidly, while the piers which were supported by it were similarly constructed in a short amount of time to accommodate the speed with which the foundation was made. The other components which would comprise the collective and individual parts of the building, including the arches, buttresses and the dome itself, were also shaped, built and adhered to one another with a mortar which had insufficient time to stand for a durable length of time. Also, while the dome itself was to be revered by many historians for the novel way in which it was constructed and applied to the rest of the Hagia Sophia, there were other technical issues in its design which played no small part in its eventual decimation. In particular, it should be noted that it was shaped so that it yielded a rather weighty amount of pressure due to its flat construction, which aided in its outward fall.

6. Conclusion (Please elaborate to 1550 words)

The Islamic Golden Age spawned magnificent construction projects motivated by religion, which is fairly typical of most of the construction of the first century A.D., regardless of whichever religious denomination is favored by a particular architect of ruler commissioning the construct . Islamic religion began its conquest of all the lands around the Arabian Peninsula during Mohammed's time, which is widely regarded to be between the years of 570 and 632 A.D. With each new territory conquered, mosques and palaces were built as the centre of urban administrative cities. It was important that the cities radiated out from the core of the mosque, illustrating the pivotal place of this building in Islamic culture and providing a means by which people could gather for a variety of reasons, not just those regarding religion. Consequently, such temples and their surrounding cities were not only a place for prayer, but also a communal gathering location designed to encourage group identity. They evolved into the political centre of Islamic society. Like previous religious buildings, the mosque architecture of the Islamic empire relied on the transformation from nomadic life to sedentary, agrarian life, which would eventually yield itself to full-fledged urban centers of commerce, study and socialization.

Perhaps the best example of this concept of the mosque creating an entire communal-based life around it can be evidenced in the construction and the fostering of civilian life which the Great Mosque of Kairouan produced. This particular mosque can be considered the basis for the founding of the city of Kairouan, which sprouted about the temple in confirmation of the fact that it would serve as a cultural, intellectual, and even civic epicentre for the region directly around it. Although the surrounding city grew in a manner in which the mosque was no longer located in the middle of the city, it was always the cornerstone of the sense of community and scholarship which it developed and resulted in a significant population within the borders of Kairouan. Culturally, the impact on its civilian constituents was virtually unparalled by any of the mosques which preceded the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which went on to become regarded as an international university and confluence of ideas and cultures which would be hard to duplicate.

The pattern for the mosque began with Mohammed's model in Medina, Mosque Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (622 -- 781 AD), which contained many of the important congregational elements such as an open courtyard, an assembly hall, a mihrab, and a minbar, although such features were conceived and designed in relatively modest proportions compared to those of future, contemporary, and even many past architectural structures. Subsequently, there was nothing ornate about Mohammed's crude building. Only the pattern of elements and their manifestation into specific features would be important for the erection of later buildings and religious temples, which would eventually develop into the great constructions of the Islamic empire, such as the Grand Mosque of Damascus and the Great Mosque of Kairouan. These new buildings kept faithfully to the original features, although the decor, methods, materials, and scale would indelibly be changed dramatically. The original construction for this particular temple, however, consisted of basic bricks sealed with mud or clay While the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi typified the simplicity of its design with floors that were unpaved, approximately 100 years after its initial construction, the upgrade in construction materials and level of sophistication which were to become an integral part of architectural design and construction technology in the Islamic Golden age would be readily manifested in the creation of the Grand Mosque of Damascus, particularly in the substances utilized for its design. This particular temple was characterized by columns layered in gold, as well as surfaces and floors paved in more expensive materials such as marble. Mosaics constructed of glass were also adorned throughout its halls, and its roof was even tiled. Certain walls were painted, its arcade was tiered; in little less than a hundred years time the level of architecture had readily advanced to keep pace with those of even Byzantine construction, which played no small part in the design of some of the Islamic temples, particularly the Grand Mosque of Damascus which even incorporated Byzantine artwork within its borders.