The Industrial Revolution's transformation of technology, society, and culture

Industrial Revolution: Cultural and Construction History (1750 to 1900)

Cultural Environment

During the Industrial Revolution machines changed the way people lived and their ways of manufacturing. The advent of steam power and its associated machinery in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries spurred significant changes in farming, manufacturing, mining, and transport. Beginning in England, these developments started a process of using vast natural resources to power economic change, for example in such areas as the manufacture of cloth and in the use of locomotive engines in transportation (Schivelbusch). Europe's socioeconomic and cultural conditions were transformed (More). Technology introduced mechanised production systems that replaced manual labour. One of the principle ways in which the Industrial Revolution altered these different arenas of life was by making it more economically feasible, through the usage of machines and the technologies that enabled them, to utilize resources that had previously been available, yet were deemed too expensive to use on a regular basis. Other developments during this time period, such as the founding of formulas that resulted in new, improved materials for construction such as steel, plate glass, and cast iron, were directly responsible for many advances throughout different industries. The use of steam and water power created the train and the steamship, which revolutionised the market and the transportation of goods (Lorenzen). Factories altered the landscape. The military industrial machine also developed new technologies for war. These developments were influential in producing more efficacious techniques of management. Innovations in methods of communication, particularly towards the end of this time period, also aided in the burgeoning change that gripped the world during this pivotal era

In analysing why the Industrial Revolution occurred, some commentators think that the British made advancements because its entrepreneurs held to a belief in the work ethic, the use of technology, and the importance of progress. Information could also be exchanged rapidly in England due to its network of informal philosophical societies. Furthermore, magazines and periodicals describing technology began in the early 1800s. Additionally, the middle class of industrialists and businessmen were beginning to have more power than the land-owning nobles (Hudson 138 -- 44).

1.2 Relationship to Previous Period

Once machinery had been introduced, tradition production systems vanished. Larger middle and artisan classes meant political and sociological changes. The move from human- and animal-based technology to the use of machines required a number of scientific advances and more control than previously was asserted on national boundaries. Political transformations occurred as well, as people demanded more autonomy and less overt repression from formal government. The revolution that occurred in the U.S. was soon echoed by an even more important one in France a decade later, signalling an end to feudalism and a (slow) global adherence to the more modern form of government, democracy (Smith). Many of these political and social ideologies were directly related to the Enlightenment, and the notion of man overcoming previous limitations to his authority and establishing new precedents and goals. The spirit of innovation provided by the Scientific Revolution allowed for the facilitation of many of these ideas, which manifested themselves in varying forms of modernization and improvements in daily life. For instance, updates in medical technology and health care practices, fuelled by the construction of sturdier, safer places of work and dwelling, resulted in childhood mortality decreasing, creating a larger workforce. Eventually, child labor laws would be implemented to accommodate the social changes that such a workforce provided. Health and hygiene improved. Food production became more efficient, eliminating waste and the threat of famine. A switch from rural to urban life suggested new needs. The refinement of the steam engine made transportation and travel easier, quicker, and accessible to more people. This change from the previous period allowed for a continuous cycle of improvement and a rise in the general standard of living for most Europeans (Mumford).

2. Scientific Environment

The Industrial Revolution progressed naturally out of the Scientific Revolution. Science provided the tools and technological developments that allowed for certain tasks to be conducted on a larger scale, such as agriculture. The Industrial Revolution was based on applied scientific achievements, and its social implications were also vast. For example, industries such as textiles, milling, and mining were mechanized using applied knowledge of machinery.

One of the more recognizable names from the Industrial Revolution is Hans Christian Orsted (1777 -- 1851). In his Philosophisk Repertorium he stated, "in order to achieve completeness in our knowledge of nature, we must start from two extremes, from experience and from the intellect itself. . . . When the empiricist in his regression towards general laws of nature meets the metaphysician in his progression, science will reach its perfection." Orsted's view represents a fusion of scientific rationalism and empiricism, a scientist's dream. His research on electromagnetism led him to the realization that electricity is propagated by fluctuation. His discovery linking electricity and magnetism sent shockwaves through the physics community, leading to a large upsurge of research into electrodynamics.

Others made significant contributions at this time. William Whewell (1794 -- 1866) was a disciple of Bacon. He developed the hypothetico-deductive method of scientific logic, which attempted to unite ideas with facts. He also coined the term "scientist" (William Whewell -Encyclopedia Britannica). Another empirical philosopher, John Stuart Mill (1806 -- 1873), developed utilitarianism into a moral doctrine. Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 -- 1941) helped to found pragmatism and statistics. He also invented the concepts of blind and controlled randomized experiments, now a staple of epidemiology (Management). In "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined a method to test the truth of knowledge through logical pragmatism, which fuses induction and deduction rather than using them in competition. Secondly, Peirce proposes a scheme for testing hypotheses that still holds sway, and the abductive, deductive, and inductive inference modes of reasoning (286 -- 302).

It is also highly important to realize that in some ways, the Industrial Revolution was a product of the Enlightenment. This crucial time period spanned approximately the duration of the 18th century, although numerous philosophical underpinnings that powered this movement were conceived during the 17th century. The Enlightenment, which initiated in Europe and eventually crossed the Atlantic to play a significant part in the development of the United States and the shapers of the New World, emphasized the ability and triumphs of man vs. those of God -- which was traditionally credited for any benign behaviour or achievements.

Despite the fact that the Enlightenment was primarily a cultural movement in which religion was de-emphasized (if not outright marginalized), it certainly provided the atmosphere for many of the scientific, economic, political, and social innovations that characterized the majority of the Industrial Revolution -- particularly in its earliest stages. The pioneering spirit of colonialism and of man's ability to make advances in stages of life primarily assigned to nature -- such as the aforementioned innovations in electricity and magnetism -- were all championed by the Enlightenment and carried over to the field of industry.

Additionally, the Enlightenment helped provide some of the political context which helped to create environments in which the scientific and cultural achievements of the Industrial Revolution could take place. Principles of the Enlightenment heavily influenced the founding fathers of the U.S. government -- who then went on to form a country that utilized several of the technologies and principles that the Industrial Revolution went on to be known for. Additionally, social-political upheavals throughout Europe -- most notably the French Revolution -- were spurred in no small part by the feeling of unrest and discontent with tradition that the Enlightenment was credited for. This sentiment played an influential role in the zeitgeist that helped to produce some of the most wide sweeping and efficacious reforms of the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution actually had a symbiotic relationship with the Enlightenment and its focus on science primarily through the widespread dissemination of printed materials. Since one of the effects of the enlightenment was the ability to better allocate resources more inexpensively, several scientific books and journals were widely disseminated during the 18th century that propagated scientific notions that helped to spur further innovations evidenced in the Industrial Revolution. In France alone, reading rates doubled in the 18th century (Darnton 16). The scientific journals that were initially produced in the latter portion of the 17th century continued in popularity throughout the next century, and helped to spread some of the most radical ideas related to science to an increasingly growing audience.

Also, it is important to note the importance these journals played in cultivating a relatively new branch of scientific knowledge, that known as natural history. Popular works of literature that directly affected the scientific community in the years leading up to the Industrial Revolution include the 1746 publication of Jacques d'Agoty's La Myologie complete, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain, as well as Histoire naturelle des insects by Reamur. The novelty of this subject matter, which attempted to categorize natural occurrences via scientific processes, played an integral part in disseminating several scientific developments that would shape the Industrial Revolution (Spary 289-293).

Aside from natural science, other realms of science that enjoyed noticeable developments during the early part of the Industrial Revolution included chemistry and astronomy. The former would prove to profoundly affect a number of innovations directly related to construction materials, such as the formulas relating to developments in concrete, steel, and even in iron, to a certain extent. One of the most profound achievements in chemistry was the theory of the combustion of oxygen discovered by Antonie Lavoisier (No author). Advancements in astronomy during the early portion of the Industrial Revolution included the discovery of Uranus, refinements in telescopes and increased clarity in conceptions of gravitational pull between celestial bodies (Porter 328). Most importantly, these innovations like that which typified most of the science that preceded and existed during the time of the Industrial Revolution, served to further the spirit of human achievement and accomplishment that the aforementioned epoch actualized.

3. Economics Environment

1000 words is required for this section. 7 references are required

Please cover the following sections

3.0 Background (150 words)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_economic_history_of_Europe#Industrial_Revolution

The ultimate manifestation of the Industrial Revolution, of course, was its impact and modernization of economics and principles thereof. The cultural sophistication that influenced and was enabled by technological advances allowed for new means of producing revenues with an efficacy that was unmatched in antiquity. As was the case with virtually all aspects of the Industrial Revolution, the economic benefits of this movement emanated first in England with its factory system, before spreading throughout the rest of Europe and eventually reaching the new world. Scientific improvements that allowed for the widespread production and usage of materials such as steel, iron and coal enabled industries such as the railroad system, textiles and other factories, as well as new forms of business ventures to take root and drastically revamp the means of achieving pecuniary ends. For instance, by the end of the 19th century the amount of power England obtained from steam sources vastly outspanned that procured from conventional water supplies (Crafts 344). The fostering of industry itself was able to significantly affect the economic systems of areas that benefitted from the industrial revolution -- and induce a monetary stability and reliability that is still in place today.

3.1 Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nation (250 words)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought#Adam_Smith_and_The_Wealth_of_Nations

One of the most highly influential economic developments of the Industrial Revolution was the popularity of economist Adam Smith, and his seminal treatise on the subject: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The timing of this manuscript helped to account for its widespread influence -- it was published in the same year as the founding of the United States, and printed in the waning years before the French Revolution. The principles the economist advocated in this manuscript were certainly controversial at the time, as they were directly opposed to the mercantilist practices that drove the most powerful European powers at the time. Yet what Smith proposed was a conception of economics that the Industrial Revolution provided the conditions for, and which helped to modernize, if not outright globalize, the independent economic concerns of powerful countries at the time. As a testimony to the efficacy of this book and Smith's other economic principles, several other writers and political theorists based their ideas on Smiths within a generation's time (Fusfeld 24).

In the Wealth of Nations, Smith calls for an open market economy (Smith 533) with governmental regulation -- to minimize the propensity for monopoly and trusts or cartels that could potentially circumscribe the free system of economics in which trade, commerce, and open competition were the chief tenets. The economist believed that an open market would balance itself, even on an international or global scale, primarily because of a division of labor that largely allows for an expansion of the marketplace. Such labor division and expansion would ultimately require an amassing of capital on the part of business and industrial leaders -- and would be reinforced by the concept of property rights as initially advocated by John Locke.

3.2 Classical Political Economy (300 words)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought#Classical_political_economy

In some form or another, classical political economy is largely based on or proceeds from measures of economic thought initially advanced by Smith. This statement should not suggest that the variety of thinkers and positions outlined within classical political economy represent a consensus of some sort -- with at least five notable members (Thomas Malthus, Jeremy Bentham, Jean-Baptiste Say, John Stuart Mill, and David Ricardo) of this school of thought, such a consensus was virtually impossible, particularly because some of these individuals propounded positions that directly rebutted the literature and works of the others. However, there are certain common tenets of classical political economy that appear to have been descended from Smith's viewpoints of monetary thought. One of the most eminent of these is the notion that given the liberty to do so, that the marketplace would eventually stabilize itself due to certain inherent qualities of it.

For example, Say was a firm believer in the fact that production actually was demand in itself, and advocated a certain degree of autonomy for the market so that it could balance itself. What is interesting about 'Say's Law" is that both Ricardo and Mill subscribed to this principle of economics. Ricardo believed in a difference between true wealthy capitalists and simple landowners who collected rent from laborers (Dhamee). On an international stage, Ricardo's notion of comparative advantage states that countries will counteract the surpluses and deficits in one another, due to what he believed the three principle factors of production were -- labor, land and capital. Such stabilization was an intrinsic part of the open market system initially put forward by Smith. It was due to this need for a free market economy that the Industrial Revolution was able to yield economic profits on a global level in a manner distinct from traditional nationalistic, mercantilist tendencies, and in large part of a co-dependence of different nation states and continents upon one another.

3.3 Neoclassical Thoughts (300 words)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought#Neoclassical_thought

The third most profound influence in the sphere of economics that reflected the growth and transformation of the Industrial Revolution occurred in the 1860's, and largely appeared to be a spontaneous transition from the preceding precepts that had occurred before. This spontaneity is in large part reflected by the fact that disparate thinkers throughout Europe were responsible for the economic movement known as Neoclassical Thought -- the central concept of which was the option of marginal utility. The primary difference between this economic tenet and that of Smith and of the Classical Political Economy thinkers was that the former believed that prices merely indicated the marginal utility of the last purpose, whereas the latter acknowledged price as an accurate reflection of labor. This difference, albeit subtle, would go on to have widespread influence in the sphere of economics since it really means that preference determines price, and not necessarily labor (which was what was long thought to be the case).

This concept was simultaneously developed by Leon Walras of France, Stanley Jevons of England, and Austria's Carl Menger. Menger attributed marginal utility to the laws of cause and effect (Menger 51). Jevons arrived at this notion on his own (Jevons 334), as did Walras. Marginal utility essentially means that prices are in part determined by the theory of diminishing returns, which states that the value of an object decreases with the amount of its consumption. These changing preferences influence the value of other objects, and prices, which help to determine a fickleness in consumer trends and the marketplace that is effective for utilizing a global economy and interdependence, such as that which the Industrial Revolution provided. The overarching premise was that the final purchase of something only represents the fact that at the margin, the level of satisfaction of a particular item has declined.

4. General Management

Please cover the following sections

4.0 Background (150 words)

In many ways, the Industrial Revolution was made possible by the attempts to produce more effective methods of management of a variety of different resources -- including economics, raw materials, sources of labor, and finished products. One of the principle boons of this epoch, the factory system (Hutt) and the propensity for mass production in a variety of industries, attests to the degree of efficacy of the management principles used during this time. The many technological advances attributed to the Industrial Revolution conceived of and enabled more efficient management of material resources. By the end of the 19th century, the notion of formal management as it is known and practiced today was acknowledged by a bevy of professionals, most notably by Joseph Warton at his management training seminar in 1881.

4.2 Mass production (150 words)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production#Before_the_Machine_Age

One of the most demonstrable effects of prudent management is the ability to mass produce materials, goods, and, ultimately, finished products. Although the history of mass production extends beyond the Industrial Revolution, this indicator of efficient management was utilized throughout Europe during this time period. Primarily, such mass production methods were utilized to create tools and weapons of war, such as hand arms and maritime parts for war ships. England's John Penn is one of the first marine engineers to mass produce such materials during the Crimean War -- he specialized in the construction of engines for ships (Osbourn 106). Mass production would fully take root as one of the chief demonstrations of effective management during the engendering of the factory system, which is widely attributed to England during the formative stages of the Industrial Revolution. This system enabled a group of workers to churn out whatever sort of product a particular factory specialized in. The systematic structuring of such a system, whose very goal was mass production, signified significant progress in management techniques.

4.1 Manufacture Management- Adam Smith (200 words)

One of the central figures in management during the Industrial Revolution was Adam Smith (1723 -- 1790), an economist who penned the Wealth of Nations. His economic ideas were the foundation for the laissez-faire management doctrine. This approach to economics went directly against the mercantilist tendencies that were prevalent throughout the U.K., and the greater part of the civilized world as well. He asserted the presence of an "invisible hand" that worked over the market, naturally controlling prices and competition. His thoughts on the division of labour were fundamental to the principles of the efficient organisation of work, including notions of increased specialisation, work simplification, and time studies. For example, Smith described process changes to improve productivity in pin manufacturing. Seeing that an individual could make 200 pins a day, through an analysis of the stages of manufacturing Smith was able to propose a process of specialisation in which ten people could produce 48,000 pins per day (Mejia 20). Smith's notions of labor and their impact on the free market and on capitalism would later influence some of Karl Marx's thoughts on those same subjects several years later -- although the latter opposed theories that opposed the former's.

4.3 Development of Management Thoughts (300 words)

Other economists and manufacturers contributed to the theory of management. Mill justified theoretically the notions of resource allocation, production, and pricing. Innovators like Eli Whitney (1765 -- 1825), James Watt (1736 -- 1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728 -- 1809) were responsible for standardization of production, acknowledgment of the importance of quality control, the development of cost accounting, planning of work, and the notion of interchangeable components. Charles Babbage (1792 -- 1871) was a pioneer in manufacturing technology. In 1822 he created a mechanical calculator which was the world's first computer. Babbage supervised how his invention was used and was interested in the labour division in manufacturing. He also invented equipment to monitor workers' output, which was then used to generate a profit-sharing system involving workers being paid a bonus from company profits (Management: Historical Perspectives).

Robert Owen (1771 -- 1858) was a trendsetter in management practises. He viewed the progression of the Industrial Revolution as chaotic and sought to bring increased order to the system. His management philosophy was based on the idea that better observation could maintain order in a factory. He rejected corporal punishment or threats of redundancy as disciplinary procedures and chose rather to appeal to an individual worker's morality. This system elevated rewards over punishments as a motivation for productive employment. Owen gave his superintendents coloured markers to place at the workstations of good workers. At the end of each day, the workers would stand by their units so any person passing by could note the performance of each employee. This was designed to encourage those not exerting their full effort, while attempting to maintain sustained effort from the higher achievers. Such practices were fairly novel for this time period, and emphasized the fact that both rewards and punishments could be used to spur workers. Owen's methods suggested that the former may be more effective than the latter.

4.4 the Dawn of Scientific Management (200 words)

By the late nineteenth century, economists such as Alfred Marshall (1842 -- 1924) and Leon Walras (1834 -- 1910) were developing theories of management style. Joseph Wharton presented the first management training seminar in 1881. This evolution of management theory led, by the 1900s, to managers attempting to place management on a scientific basis, for example Henry R. Towne's Science of Management and later the revolutionary treaty of Frederick Winslow Taylor, the Principles of Scientific Management . Taylor's influence on scientific management was so ubiquitous that many referred to this fledgling science as Taylorism (Mitchell & Briggle 1153). Among other things, he did not believe in the innate goodness of workers and was somewhat distrustful, if not directly condescending, in his regard for them and their needs. In this regard, his view of workers actually emphasized a degree of humanity that was previously overlooked.

The chief objective of scientific management, however, was to elevate management practices to a formal academic discipline in which worker productivity and efficient economic principles are emphasized. The development of this field would have far reaching consequences, particularly for business and project managers in contemporary society, who can trace many concepts and practices to the end of the Industrial Revolution.

5. Architectural Principles

Please cover the following sections

5.0 Background - Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architecture

Given its proclivity for shaping areas of science, economics, and culture, it was inevitable that the Industrial Revolution would play an immense role in reshaping architecture. Developments in the aforementioned fields directly contributed to several architectural innovations, specifically those affecting the expedience of construction, the layout of open plans, the functional and aesthetic principles of wide spanning buildings that utilized natural light, and the propensity for increasing height of structures. Such developments in architecture typified the spirit of change and progress that the industrial Revolution represented on a global stage.

One of the most readily apparent ways in which construction was impacted by the Industrial Revolution was in the efficiency in which structures could be completed. Prior to this epoch, the construction of large structures that could span a substantial length of time typically took the better part of 10 years (or more) to complete. However, the expedience of transportation that the Industrial Revolution allowed for in the form of the burgeoning railroad system and the advent of steam engines enabled crucial materials to be accessed much more quickly (Hackett), adding to the speed in which structures were erected. Construction materials and the manpower to implement them could be made available in substantially less time than they previously could. Additionally, the technological development of prefabricated parts and the mass production of construction materials, such as glass, balustrade, and finished products like doors and windows also aided in more expedient creation of the materials used in the construction process.

For the first time, open plans innovations in construction materials affected the shape and size of structures. The widespread availability of cast iron and plate-glass, for instance, begat a trend in creating structures that incorporated large quantities of natural sunlight and space. One of the most influential of these structures was England's Glass Palace, which was widely replicated in varying forms in other parts of the world. The nimbleness of the cast iron reinforcements was well suited for the plate glass finishing; the latter material persisted in playing a major part in construction materials into the 20th century Structures were bestowed with a large degree of ornamentation during this historical epoch (McRae). Additional developments of the Industrial Revolution manifested themselves in an increasing height in structures. Technological advancements that led to elevator systems definitely played a part in the size of the Eiffel Tower, while the formula for steel would prove crucial to the many skyscrapers that dominated architecture in the 20th century.

New technologies and Materials led to New Possibilities:

a. The new possibilty of quick construction (steam engine, railway, transportation for quick relocation of resources, eg, materials, manpower. prefabricated elements, mass production for quick and cheap building products, eg, ballatrade, glass, window, doors)

b. The new possibilty of open plan (concept of columns for factory design )

c. The new possibilty of sun-lit large spanned buildings (cast iron structure and plate-glass system for the Crystal Palace)

d. The new possibilty of tall buildings -- the dawn of skyscraper (steel structure, elevator system for Effiel Tower)

5.1 Cast-iron Architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_architecture

The wide spread usage of cast-iron played a considerable role in the facilitation of the Industrial Revolution. This substance has a number of highly malleable properties, including manganese, (Gillespie 4). Cast-iron architecture was one of the most dependable and utilitarian of construction techniques of this era, prior to the development of contemporary steel and wrought-iron. The earliest phases of the Industrial Revolution were highly influenced by the rampant usage of cast-iron as reinforcements to build upon. By the latter part of the 19th century, however, cast-iron frames were largely replaced with those utilizing steel. This latter material compensated for circumscriptions in "masonry-bearing wall structures" (McEntee). Therefore, many of the latter structures of the Revolution (such as lofty skyscrapers) were constructed with steel reinforcements, whereas the earlier structures of this epoch were built with cast-iron.

It is significant to note that cast-iron structures actually existed prior to the Industrial Revolution. However, it was not until this crucial time period that technological and scientific achievements were made that allowed for cast iron to be produced in a manner that was inexpensive enough to use to build an entire construct upon. During the mid to late 19th century, cast iron processes in the United Kingdom were able to render this material in affordable, large enough quantities that structures could utilize the substance as the primary building material. The first such structure was the Shropshire's Iron Bridge, which employed a relatively modest quality (underscored by several cracks) of cast-iron as the primary construction tool, and would serve as the basis for most other future cast-iron construction (No author).

Due to the sudden availability of this substance, cast-iron become ubiquitous during the Industrial Revolution. It was so popular, in part, because of the number of uses in which it could be used for construction. It was extremely malleable, much more so than previous construction materials such as stone or concrete, and allowed for a degree of ornamentation that these previous substances could not produce. Simple welding techniques could repair any defects caused by the imperfect casting process. (Yescas-Gonzalez & Bahadeshia). Its supporting columns were relatively slim, particularly compared to traditional masonry, and could conserve space that could be utilized for other construction purposes. It also enabled a degree a compression strength that was highly useful. Drawbacks to the material included its brittleness and flammability, which could be limited by utilizing the substance in the proper manner.

Once the process for creating cast iron in a highly efficient manner was developed in England, it initially aided the Industrial Revolution simply due to the number of factories that sprouted up manufacturing the substance. Structures were built all around the world utilizing cast iron. Another particularly eminent edifice that was a testament to the new structural material was the Crystal Palace, which was rendered primarily with cast iron and glass and was influential to the design of a number of structures. Several housing constructs were built in the United States