Computer Training Program to Enhance

¶ … Computer Training Program to Enhance Technology Integration by School Administrators

In recent years, globalization has sparked a revolution in information and communication technology, resulting in the emergence of a new era of educational instruction. As technology becomes more common it is imperative that leaders update their skills and begin to integrate technology into their leadership techniques. Using technology produces a more productive and professional leader. Technology reduces the hassle of administrative responsibilities while also providing ongoing opportunities for growth and learning for leaders and employees. This literature review examines the current state of research and reviews the resolutions for the reality of the use of technology for the development of a computer-training program to enhance technology integration by school administrators.

The revolution in technology has had a strong impact on education. For example, few research tools are more beneficial to students than the resources available on the Internet. After more than two decades of research on the benefits of educational technology, studies have indicated several positive results on student achievement. In studies of large-scale statewide technology implementations, these efforts have been correlated with increases in students' performance on standardized tests (Egendorf, 2004). In addition, software supporting the acquisition of early literacy skills, including phonetic awareness, vocabulary development, reading comprehension, and spelling can support student learning gains (Egendorf, 2004). A review of the literature indicates that these technological advances cannot be applied without the training and knowledge of teachers and leaders in this technology.

The Importance of Technological Training for Teachers

Although there has been a strong push to get educational technology into the hands of teachers and students, many obstacles to implementation still exist (Gahala, 2001). Research indicates that professional development activities may not provide ongoing, hands-on training for teachers or practical strategies for implementing technology into lesson plans. More than 90% of all schools are connected to the Internet, and more than 33% of teachers have Internet access in their classrooms, however, teachers readily admit that they are not making as much use of technology as they could (Gahala, 2001). According to an Education Week survey, nearly 30% of teachers said their students use computers only one hour per week; nearly 40% said their students do not use computers in the classroom at all (Trotter, 1999). Although technology is more prevalent in the schools, some important factors affecting whether and how it is used include new roles for teachers, time for ongoing professional development, and the appropriate coaching of teachers at different skill levels.

Technology integration brings changes to teachers' instructional roles in the classroom. Research indicates that the teacher's role in a technology-infused classroom often shifts to that of a facilitator or coach rather than a lecturer (Henriquez & Riconscente, 1998). As students become more self-directed, teachers who are not accustomed to acting as facilitators or coaches may not understand how technology can be used as part of activities that are not teacher-directed (Gahala, 20010. Teachers must become comfortable letting students move into domains of knowledge where they themselves lack expertise, and they must be able to model their own learning process when they encounter phenomena they do not understand or questions they cannot answer (Kozma & Schank, 1998). This means that learning the new roles and ways of teaching that go hand-in-hand with technology integration requires that teachers have opportunities to participate in an extended process of professional development. Teachers need time to acquire technology skills and develop new teaching strategies for integrating technology into the classroom (Gahala, 2001).

Since the technological skills of all teachers varies, school leaders must be prepared to develop personal plans for professional development that include goals for using technology. A computer program can be developed to enhance the use of technology in the individual classrooms. These programs can be competency driven, identifying specific areas where technology can be used effectively, and they can specify outcomes to be achieved using technology. Individual tutoring, peer coaching, collaboration, networking, and mentoring have been used successfully over extended periods to help teachers at all levels of technology implementation develop technology applications that promote engaged learning (McKenzie, 1994; Miller, 1998). As teachers begin to regard technology as a tool to accomplish instructional goals, they will learn best when engaged in meaningful projects that relate to their own classrooms (Gahala, 2001).

According to Gahala (2001), appropriate individualized support from peers as well as experts encourages teachers to experiment with new strategies for technology use. Teachers should have the option to participate in the type of workshops, seminars, and online professional communities that will help them use technology effectively. Research further indicates that offering incentives is an important aspect of a technology professional development program. Incentives help ensure that teachers who face escalating demands on their limited time receive the training they need to prepare their students for the technological workplace of the future (Gahala, 2001). Some incentives noted by researchers are financial incentives, such as compensation for professional development in technology on weekends or during summers.

Research by Gahala (2001) indicates that whenever possible, software-selection activities should involve teams of teachers. Gahala notes that teachers working together can plan curricular projects, develop and apply criteria for selecting software or Internet sites, engage in the evaluation of the use of specific software or Internet sites, and reflect upon how their teaching is changing through technology integration. Additionally, teaming can facilitate technology integration, especially when teacher teams reflect on their degree of success. According to Brand (1998), when teachers engage with others in ongoing reflection about what they learned about the instructional use of technology, they are more likely to critically evaluate their own pedagogical practice and redesign their instruction. Gahala (2001) also notes that technological competence should be considered as one aspect of teacher evaluation. Furthermore, job security could be linked to technological professional development by requiring technology-related professional development for contract renewal, or making technology professional development a requirement for recertification.

One of the most acknowledged problems in this area is that not all teachers are motivated to use technology. Teachers may resist for many reasons, including the fear that technology threatens their role as expert, and the feeling of inadequacy resulting from lack of prior mastery of technology skills (Saye, 1998). Teachers may value time-tested educational methods and believe that technology is just another educational fad (McKenzie, 1993; Saye, 1998). Gahala (2001) notes that although providing technology-training programs worthy of teachers' time is important, inducing all teachers to enhance their job skills may ultimately require stronger incentives than self-motivation.

Technology Development Programs

Some educational institutions have developed and implemented technological training programs in response to the growing need to educate teachers and leaders. In response to the technology goals specified in the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994, the state of Georgia established the InTech Professional Development Program. Skills taught include the use of email, word processing programs, and Internet searches as well as software installation and evaluation (Brooks et.al., 2001). Program participants are also required to read articles about technology and to plan and implement technology-training lessons for their colleagues. In Georgia, teachers who had completed the InTech program were certified to redeliver, or train their colleagues at their school sites. Studies conducted by Brooks et.al. (2001) assessed how teachers felt about the different programs, the methods employed by the teachers to implement InTech training in elementary classrooms, and the factors that enhance or create barriers to technology use.

Brooks et.al. (2001) studied a variety of teachers in three elementary schools who had completed the InTech program. They posed questions such as whether the administrator supported the integration of technology in the classroom, whether additional training would increase the teacher's comfort level as they incorporated technology into lessons for the students, and whether the technology trainer influenced the teachers' use of technology. The study results indicated that two significant factors that had an impact on integration of technology in the classroom. The first factor was that teachers' computer proficiency increased after taking the InTech training program; the second factor was that technology trainers had a significant impact on teachers' learning. Teachers trained at the university-based programs had more positive experiences than those trained at the local level. Based on their findings, the researchers recommended that the school sites be supplied with more software and equipment to improve technology instruction.

The study results also indicated that the reported barriers to technology integration within classrooms included planning time, classroom management using the computer, and time restrictions because of scheduling conflicts. This agrees with a finding from the National Center for Education Statistics that, next to a lack of computers, lack of release time for teachers to learn technologies and lack of class time for students to use computers are barriers to teachers' technology use (Ezarik, 2001).

A review of the literature reveals that administrators and leaders face several challenges in the implementation if a computer training program. Research indicates that a significant challenge for administrators when planning professional development is to provide teachers with programming they find both intellectually stimulating and pleasurable (Beatty, 2002). Similar to the suggestions offered by Gahala (2001), Brody (1995) identified several traits to be considered when developing a comprehensive professional development program. Among those traits include the reputation of the trainer, the rewards available to the participants, both tangible and intangible, and the support of the administration. Traditional staff development models have required everyone to participate at the same time and in the same location creating problems such as scheduling, travel, space, and funding. Bintrim (2002) notes that web-delivered staff development allows teachers to log on and participate at the time of day that is best for them and at the pace they are the most comfortable with.

Burke (1994) concluded that the use of effective distance education programs for K-12 staff development should be increased to supplement face-to-face in-services due to the positive evaluations of K-12 educators who participated in the electronic distance education in-service programs. However, other research reports that with the majority of school districts having computers in the classroom, libraries, and computer labs, the number of assignments given by teachers requiring students to utilize technology as part of their learning process is low, especially in the areas of language, science, and the arts both at the elementary and secondary levels (Cole & Styron, 2005). Additional studies have been conducted evaluating the effectiveness of technological development for staff. Poole and Moran (1998) identified several factors that contribute to the ineffectiveness of technology staff development. Those include the lack of support from administration, unawareness of what is needed in the schools, inadequate one-shot workshops with no follow-up, expense of training, and lack of continued support.

Research indicates that training teachers to use the technology provided to them is an important task, and the means by which this training takes place, online training or traditional face-to-face training, could have a substantial impact. Cole and Styron (2005) studied whether teachers were more likely to prefer online methods in lieu of traditional face-to-face methods of obtaining training on various topics pertaining to technology. The Cole and Styron (2005) study involved the use of a causal comparative design, whereas responses from 90 K-6 and 7-12 teachers who participated in at least one online module through TeacherLine (free professional development sponsored by PBS TeacherLine) were analyzed through a survey instrument to determine if there was a difference in attitudes of online professional development. The level of computer experience prior to participating in an online professional development session was a factor in analyzing data since the teachers' comfort levels with technology could affect their attitudes toward being involved in professional development that is based primarily on technology.

Cole and Styron (2005) investigated teachers' willingness to incorporate technology into their classrooms after participating in an online professional development session. They found that the vast majority of the respondents to the survey understood the benefits of using technology to enhance the learning and teaching experience and the value of using technology in the classroom after they participated in online professional development. The results also indicated that the preferred method of delivering this training is through online professional development with 89.1% of the teachers willing to participate in another online module through TeacherLine and 85.5% willing to participate in any form of online professional development. The above average and high range of responses to the question asking for the participants' preference of the online method of professional development totaled 56.4% while the same range of responses to their preference of the traditional face-to-face method of professional development indicated only 29.1% (Cole & Styron, 2005). The general response of the respondents when asked whether they prefer online professional development or the traditional face-to-face method, was online instruction. The results of the Cole and Styron (2005) study indicate that more professional development should be geared toward the online method of delivery.

As the literature in this area reveals, educational leaders must offer professional development opportunities geared strictly toward training teachers on how to involve the students in the use of technology. The workforce demands employees to use technology, and as a result, educational leaders must insist that students be required to become familiar with technology in their learning process. Furthermore, technologies offer teachers and students opportunities that would otherwise be extremely difficult to realize in classroom contexts. Assessment, information access, collaboration, and expression are four areas where educational technologies demonstrate particular promise (Egendorf, 2004). There is also a broad consensus among school reformers regarding the central importance of these issues for improving student achievement (Egendorf, 2004). Technologies also create new opportunities in which children can express and communicate their ideas. It is no longer uncommon for schools to encourage reports in multimedia format or for students to build web resources that can be used by others.

Educational strategies must be implemented for a better future. A 1999 report from Merrill Lynch estimated the established global education and training industry as worth more than 2 trillion dollars. The report concludes that the transformation to knowledge-based economy is creating more opportunities for four profit companies in the education and training sector and the investors that support them. At least 25 new e-learning offerings, companies or collaborations entered the market in early 2000 with many more planned from government initiatives, private sector investment or educational institutions, changing the way they do things. Emerging for profit companies and institutions of higher education are entering the e-learning arena as both partners and competitors in a race to provide the most up-to-date technology and expert content to it is customers.

Research by Cammack and Holmes (2002) indicates that the Internet plays a part in changing the classroom culture. Providing resources on the Internet means that teachers load a lot of what they do in class to the Internet so that students can explore challenges prior to class and then come more prepared to participate (Cammack & Holmes, 2002). Initiated at Vanderbuilt University, the Case Technologies to Enhance Literacy Learning (CTELL) project, a five-year interdisciplinary effort, seeks to extend the current notions of case-based, anchored instruction to positively impact preservice education and students' literacy achievement. The goal of the research project is to increase children's literacy achievement by combining cases with Internet technologies (Cammack & Holmes, 2002). This combination will provide teacher educators with a web-based case interface to be used with preservice literacy teachers (Cammack & Holmes, 2002).

One of the main research questions that the CTELL project addresses is how case-based materials designed with web-based technologies will significantly increase preservice teacher knowledge and later efficacy as teachers (Cammack & Holmes, 2002). The goal is to improve the literacy abilities of children in general with a focus on kindergarten through third grade, and to improve literacy achievement in the early grades by improving the preservice education that teachers currently receive (Cammack & Holmes, 2002).

Other research indicates the importance of team experience that provides background and a reference for discussing teaching and learning. The ability to randomly access scenes through digital technologies facilitates deeper understanding and discussion (Goldman & Barron, 1990). Preservice teachers and their instructor can return again and again to examples of literacy instruction to determine and analyze the factors involved in teacher-decision making and student literacy achievement (Risko, 1992). This analysis becomes a shared knowledge base that members of the class can use to understand the complexities of classroom instruction and begin to apply some of that understanding to their development as future teachers (Cammack & Holmes, 2002).

The federal government should also play an important role in educational technology with regard to leadership and funding. The United States Department of Education's Office of Educational Technology has provided critical leadership in helping promote a comprehensive vision for the effective use of technology in our schools (Egendorf, 2004). This office has defined and administered programs; convened national and regional conferences to bring together state and local technology leaders. The office has also compiled and disseminated a well-researched library of best-practices information, and put forward two national technology plans (Egendorf, 2004).

Other statistics indicate that school leaders today are under increasing public pressure to improve student achievement, as standards, assessments and accountability measures are in place in school districts across the nation. However, schools are unable to take full advantage of technology, a powerful tool for teaching and learning, according to a new survey from the National School Boards Foundation. The survey of technology decision makers in school districts nationwide reveals startling gaps between the promise and reality of technology use in schools (NSBF, 2002). This survey reveals that many school districts have made great progress, investing heavily in computers and software and in connecting schools and classrooms to the Internet. School leaders report strong interest in online resources that will help them satisfy the public priorities of standards, assessments and accountability.

The NSBF study was based on telephone interviews with technology decision-makers in 811 school districts, including 90 of the largest 100 districts (more than 25,000 students), 398 medium-sized districts (2,500 to 24,999 students) and 323 small districts (up to 2,499 students). The study indicated that technology decision makers, or school leaders who manage, buy or coordinate technology for their districts, believed that technology will have a marked impact on traditional classroom teaching and learning in the near future. District leaders see the potential for interactive, online learning to make up a substantial portion of instructional time. As more schools move in this direction, the dynamic between teachers and students may change. With online learning, students can work independently, with customized instruction and at their own pace (NSBF, 2002).

Research also indicates that technological training for teachers is often overlooked. As a result, more than half of school leaders report that students are providing technical support in their districts, often assuming major responsibilities. In 43% of districts, students troubleshoot for hardware, software and infrastructure problems (NSBF, 2002). In 39% of districts, students set up equipment and wiring (NSBF, 2002). Finally, in more than one-third (36%) of districts, students take on technical maintenance (NSBF, 2002). These findings reveal an unprecedented leadership role for students in school technology. One district leader reports that "cyberkids" with technical skills work as helpers or tutors (NSBF, 2002). In one district, students supervise Internet use, report problems and monitor equipment and assist in network engineering, some having earned network and software certifications in school.

In other studies, forty-three percent of district leaders surveyed rate new teachers as only "average" when it comes to their competence in integrating the Internet into their instruction; thirty-one percent rate new teachers as "expert;" and 26% rate them as "novice (NSBF, 2002)." To address this challenge, schools are using technology to support teacher training, with 63% provide Internet-based staff development (NSBF, 2002). Additionally, 16% of all school districts surveyed report that lack of time for staff training is a barrier to providing school access to the Internet (NSBF, 2002).

Despite the rapid advances in technology and the expected increase in online learning in the coming years, decisions on technology policies and budget allocations remain in the hands of a few. School leaders say the superintendent (42%), the school board (38%), and the technology director or department (18%) make final decisions on technology purchases and Internet use (NSBF, 2002). Finally, school leaders want technology to support their academic priorities. They are looking for standards-based resources (64%), online assessment and test preparation (59%), standards-based report cards (50%), and Web-based portfolios (48%) (NSBF, 2002).

The NSBF (2002) study also suggests that in light of the survey findings, school leaders must consider how they can stretch the capacity of schools and educators to achieve better educational results. The results note that schools should invest significantly in professional development for school leaders and teachers. A broad theme emerging from survey results is that teachers need help incorporating the Internet into regular classroom instruction (NSBF, 2002). For new and veteran teachers alike, the Internet is a new frontier that one that many have little time or training to explore. Teachers need technology training to be able to use the Internet as an effective, interactive tool for teaching, learning and communicating (NSBF, 2002). Teachers also need to be prepared to guide and assess students in different ways.

The results of the NSBF (2002) study also conclude that community involvement in school technology policies and practices needs to be broadened. Educators and school board members may need to look beyond the school system to find models for creative uses of technology, online learning communities and collaborative communications (NSBF, 2002). One possibility offered is that school leaders can arrange for teachers, administrators and school board members to visit local businesses to find out how the workplace is incorporating technology into daily routines. Businesses also can invite educators to corporate workshops for technical training (NSBF, 2002). Additionally, schools can involve technology users such as parents, teachers, students, principals and community members in developing technology policies and priorities (NSBF, 2002).

A review of the literature concludes that a common consensus is that teachers must have to understand technology before they use it in their classrooms, and professional development is the preferred method to grow that understanding. The U.S. invested $40 billion in educational technology in the ten years between 1993 and 2003 (Rohoz & La Ferla, 2003). The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) reserves 25% of all technology expenditures for high quality professional development to integrate technology into instruction (National Staff Development Council, 2003). Interestingly enough, instead of using technology to teach about technology, every school jurisdiction deploys the same in service workshops, demonstration lessons, and peer modeling that have been the supposed levers of innovation for the last 50 years (Mann, 2004).

A national analysis in 2000 documented that: 99% of all teachers are exposed to professional development, but that only a third report that professional development is connected to classroom applications (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Furthermore, more than a third of all teachers (35%) never get any peer-to-peer professional development help (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Research by Joyce and Showers (1988) concluded that if teachers were presented with 11 concepts and theories, there was a 10% chance they would follow through with anything different in their classrooms. But if the help was packaged as "coaching in a work setting," the likelihood of classroom application went up to 80% (Joyce & Showers, 1988).

Possible Solutions to Lack of Technological Training

The lack of technical training for educators has also revealed difficulties to which some solutions have been proposed. TeachNet was designed by Teachers Network in order to add digital networking to face-to-face (f2f) networking in New York City. In a test of this mixed model approach to professional development, 15 TeachNet participants were compared with a control group of 24 teachers who were enrolled in graduate level instruction in educational technology (Mann, 2004). The TeachNet group created a number of online projects for students, from "Rebuilding the World Trade Center Site: a 9/11 Tribute" to "Elvis Lives (Mann, 2004)." During the TeachNet test, teachers were asked to estimate their mastery of 34 productivity functions involving computers, such as creating web pages, using search engines, and inserting pictures and graphics in documents. The TeachNet participants were more confident in their rating of their mastery than the control group teachers in 28 of the 34 areas.

Additionally, when compared with the student related outcomes from other teachers in advanced training, the TeachNet group encouraged students to use word processors in writing assignments; add graphics and images to their written assignments; use spreadsheets for data management and analysis (a skill not many of the teachers themselves had); and use eMail to communicate with each other and with expert sources of information (Mann, 2004). The empirical evidence indicated that TeachNet is doing what it is designed to do, recruit and retain teachers in a network of professionals committed to adding learning technology to the classroom curriculum.

The TeachNet mixed model suggests that there is an alternative to the conventional mode, which takes 32 or more hours of professional development on the use of computers in classrooms to get teachers to conclude that they are "well prepared" yet only 12% of teachers have had that support.

Among teachers new to the profession, only 42% feel "very" or "well" prepared to use computers in instruction (Mann, 2004). Thus, TeachNet offers a more efficient choice. If ten members of a school faculty each choose one project from the hundreds now cataloged on the TeachNet web site (www.TeachersNetwork.org),then face-to-face sessions, six hours at the beginning of the school year and six hours at the end, can be supplemented with (1) online, on demand help; (2) a CD ROM; and (3) print resources, all in support of technology integration into classroom instruction (Mann, 2004).

Furthermore, thirty percent of private sector training was online as early as 2000. Some districts are moving to harness the strengths of f2f and online experiences. Clark County, Nevada, offers mixed model, 15-hour courses that convene school centered team of teachers around collaborative lesson planning.(Mann, 2004). By adding online interaction to f2f experiences, TeachNet increases technology integration into classroom instruction; encourages new, standards-based lesson preparation; and connects good teachers with each other as sources of practical, classroom improvement (Mann, 2004).

Research by Tan and Wong (1996) portray a vision of an advanced nationwide information infrastructure in the 21st century, bringing about new national competitive advantages and enhancements in the quality of life. They state that the key to the development of these new capabilities is the global network, the Internet. The vast amount of resources available almost instantly from all over the world via the Internet will enrich the curriculum content and the instructional approaches of teachers (Tan & Wong, 1996). This mode of learning will also evolve to one that is independent and engaged through an interactive and generative multimedia environment. The motivation to learn will drive students to excel in the higher-order thinking skills that are required by workers in the global information era of the 21st century (Tan & Wong, 1996).

The sample plan of Tan and Wong is based on the following assumptions; computer literacy is a basic skill that every teacher and student in our schools must acquire; process skills that are already an integral part of learning can be further enhanced with it through the derivation of the intrinsic characteristics of computer systems such as interactivity, quick response, full multimedia capabilities, and hypertext linkages; a rich learning / teaching environment full of it may create learning stimulants and encourage meaningful and effective creativity and learning; and the integration of it in education can create change and innovation in the quality of teaching and bring about active, engaged learning while complementing conventional teaching.

Tan and Wong's research consisted of a pilot project, titled Student's and Teacher's Workbench, implemented in six secondary schools. STW is a strategic project between MOE and NCB aimed at using it to enhance teaching and learning. It is targeted to equip students with relevant skills for tomorrow's workplace and provide the impetus for the growth of the local courseware development industry (Tan & Wong, 1996). The pilot covers the sciences for all secondary one students in six schools. Under STW, the Internet has been identified as a major educational resource. As a result, Internet access was made available to students on a mass basis. This is another landmark decision as Internet access was then primarily provided for teachers only. With this networked resource made available to students, a whole new approach toward information handling and learning complements was generated (Tan & Wong, 1996). As such, a total approach to training that covered both technical and pedagogical aspects was designed and carried out.