Oif Columns in Architecture Extends

¶ … oif columns in architecture extends from the ancient Egyptians and the Greeks and Romans to its modern usage in both public and private constructions and building. The various forms and styles, such as the classical Doric and Ionic, have all contributed and added elements to the structural as well as the aesthetic aspects of architectural development,. What is clear from an overview of the history of columns is that the structural and functional aspects of columns cannot be completely separated from the aesthetic, cultural and religious aspects. This study provides a selective overview of the history of columns and their effect on contemporary architecture. Central as well to this discussion is the argument that the history of columns necessitates an understanding of the link between the religion-cultural context and the actual physical engineering and architectural needs.

Contents

Introduction

1.1. Architectural columns

Architectural history and its influence

2. Aims of the research

3. Curriculum or Method of the Study

4. Review of the Literature

5. Comparative and Developmental Analysis

5.1. Overview of Historical Development

5.2. Egyptian Columns

5.3. Greek and Roman Columns

5.4. Doric and Ionic

5.5. Social and Cultural Perspectives

5.6. The Modern Use of Columns

6. Conclusions

7. Recommendations

7. References

1. Introduction

Throughout human history the construction of buildings and architectural designs have formed an important part of human expression and development. Architectural forms and elements have served to express many aspects of cultural and social life and the belief systems of a particular society, besides being purely elements of construction. For example, humankind has often used architectural elements such as columns for both social and structural purposes and to express cultural emotions and beliefs about the universe sand religion. Many commentators make the point that architectural forms are not only functional but that there is close and intimate connection between these forms and various social and cultural visions of reality and life.

With these views in mind, it is clear that in order to understand the value and significance of the column in the history of architecture one has of necessity to take into account both their functional and aesthetic or decorative qualities.

The following study will therefore attempt to provide a brief overview of rhe development of the column from the ancient and Classical period of human history to the modern era. Central to this research is the stance that functionality and aestheticism should be linked if this architectural fro, is to be fully understood.

1.1. Architectural columns

Purely in terms of its form and structure, a column can be defined as a "...vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces" (Column: New World Encyclopaedia). In this sense, and as architectural and engineering components in building, columns are elements that are often used to support beams or arches.

However, the column is not seen only in terms of its functionality. It is important to note that in an architectural and aesthetic terms, the column refers to"...a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might not support any major structure but be a decorative or triumphant feature with, for instance, a statue on top" (Column: New World Encyclopaedia). A more comprehensive definition of a column would therefore be as follows: "A column is an upright pillar or post. Columns may support a roof or a beam, or they can be purely decorative" (Craven).

In technical terms a columns has three central parts. These are the base, the shaft and the capital. The capital refers to the top of the column, which may be simply or elaborately decorated ( Craven).

Figure1. Parts of a column

( Source: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/greek-architecture-doric-ionic-or-corinthian.html)

Architectural columns are common to numerous architectural designs and forms, which and evident today in many buildings, such as churches and hotels. One of the reasons for the popularity of this architectural form is its aesthetic value. As one study notes, "…these elements bestow beauty, elegance, and an appearance of strength wherever they are found" ( Davis). Some of the more well -- known columns in history include the following;

Alexander Column

Pillars of Ashoka

Berlin victory column

Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc

Iron pillar of Delhi

Monument to the Great Fire of London

Nelson's Column

Rostral Columns

Sigismund's Column

Trajan's Column

(Column: New World Encyclopaedia).

Columns also have an obvious and important functional value in terms of architectural construction. Both these elements, the aesthetic and the functional, extend back into ancient history. How columns originated, their history and how this ancient structural form compares to present-day columns will from a central trajectory of this research.

1.2. Architectural history and its influence

Very briefly, the historical origins of the column in architecture can be traced back as far as 2600 BC in ancient Egypt ( Barry). For example we reads that, "… ancient Egyptian architect Imhotep, is said to have used stone columns to reflect the form of bundled reeds" ( Barry). What is clear from the literature is that architects in various cultures have made use of these earlier forms and applications of the columnar from and modified them to suit their needs -- resulting in a variety of forms and styles of the column throughout history. Consequently, ".... Columns are still frequently used today as structural members or decorative features" ( Barry).

Therefore, one of the most significant aspects of a study of the history of columns in architecture is the fact that even though they have ancient origins they are still extremely influential in both design and functionality today. This fact is central to the present research and is emphasized by the following quotation.

Today, almost two point five millennia after the completion of the most perfect Greek column structure, the Parthenon sitting on top of the Acropolis, with its mighty architectural columns, is one particular element of classical architecture that continues to influence many ordinary structures and office buildings into impressive monuments... (the History of Traditional Columns and the Architectural Column).

An example of the previous influence and development of the column can be seen in the architecture of the Roman Empire. Here we find the utilization of both columns and high arches that were used to create ornate and essentially pleasing structures that were also functional in a social, cultural and governmental sense. This included buildings that housed the offices of Roman government, as well as house of private residences. In terms of the development of the column, these ancient models and principles have been copied and adapted in modern architecture. As one pundit notes; "Roman architecture was the predicate for those architectural principles that modern architecture relies upon to this very day" (the History of Traditional Columns and the Architectural Column).

Another aspect that should be considered in terms of the issue of the purpose and meaning of the column in history is the social and religious context that surrounds the column in ancient culture. This is an aspect that cannot be ignored if one is to understand fully the significance of this architectural form. This also refers to and affects the aesthetic significance of the column and refers specifically to links between architectural design, culture and religion. In other words, many of the architectural principles that influenced and informed the column were in fact partly determined by religious and social concerns. One study on this subject illustrates this point as follows:

Importantly, the architectural principles that we find in these cultured also show evidence of the link between architecture and religious themes and principles that dominated the cultures; for example the ancient Egyptian temples that were structured according to specific astronomical measurements and directions

(the History of Traditional Columns and the Architectural Column).

This cardinal aspect will be explored in the following sections.

2. Aims of the Research

The central aims of this research can be expressed as follows: to discuss and describe the function and the impact of columns, both structurally and aesthetically, from the origins of this structural form to the present day. This encompasses a wide area of discourse and analysis. Therefore these general aims and objectives have to be selectively targeted towards certain central areas and concerns.

The following discussion will therefore explore the historical origins of the column in Egypt, Greece and Rome, as well as some of the central changes and developments in the evolution of this architectural form, from both an engineering, functional, aesthetic and social perspective. Therefore the idea of the column as an artistic object of aesthetic beauty as well as being a structural and social object will form an important part of the trajectory of the present research. In order to understand the impact that the historical origins of the column have had on modern architecture it is important to understand these origins as comprehensively as possible; taking into account the various factors and influences that 'shaped' these architectural influences.

What will also be emphasized in this discussion and analysis are the changes that occurred in the Roman forms of columnar construction and the way that this led to more modern ideas and the use of the column in contemporary architecture.

3. Curriculum or Method of the Study

The research methodology that was applied in this study was essentially an inclusive, extensive and comparative overview of the literature on the subject. Various sources were consulted, which included books and scholarly articles on the column in architectural history. Also included in the literature survey was information and data from online databases and verified websites.

The information gleaned about columns and their historical context was extrapolated and then entered into a free-from database for further analysis. This resulted in an overall survey of the progression and evolution of various forms and types of columns, from the Egyptian column to the present day. A comparative method of analysis was employed in order to ascertain the commonalities as well as the differences between the various types and forms of this architectural structure.

What should also be mentioned is that the focus of the research, and a factor that influenced the selection of resources, was that this study sought to deal with both the functional as well as the aesthetic and decorative significance of the column.

The study was also limited to a certain extent by the fact that space did not allow for an exhaustive and fully comprehensive overview of all the aspects of the history of the column. Therefore, various areas of interest were selected and focused on in this research study,

4. Review of the Literature

There are a wide range of studies, reviews and articles on the history of the column in ancient culture. More significantly, there are also as number of studies, both in print and online, on the comparison between the columns of ancient cultures and those that we find in modern buildings; although this was relatively less than for ancient civilizations. While history and development were the central focus of the literature search, there were many subsidiary issues and aspects that were taken into consideration, such as the perennial aesthetic appeal of this form of architecture,

There are a number of general and foundational works that proved to be a useful resource as background to the present discussion on columns. A good example of this is a History of Western Architecture by David Watkin ( 2005). This book has been critically acclaimed for its scholarly and interesting overview of the history of architecture from Mesopotamia and Egypt to the present day. It was a useful resource for the present topic as it provided a flowing and consecutive overview of the growth and development of the field of architecture. Other works in this category that provide a comprehensive overview of the field and essential background to the present topic of research were World Architecture: An Illustrated History ( 1963) and a History of Architecture.( 1918) by Kimball and Edgell.

General online sources such as the New World Encyclopedia provided a relatively extensive overview of this topic. In particular, the New World Encyclopedia section on the history of columns was comprehensive and provided insight into many details of the development of these columns

There were a comparatively large number of Websites which provided accessible and verified data and information on this subject. A useful website that outlines with the use of text and graphics the columns of Egypt is the Columns of Ancient Egypt by Dunn. This is a relatively comprehensive overview of this topic and provided a wealth of detail and information about the columns,

Among the many scholarly articles and books that were consulted in this research, one that was particularly helpful in terms of the wider considerations between styles of Greek columns was Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art by Hegel, (1998). An extract indicates the depth of the insight that this work provided.

Further differences between the Ionic and the Doric style are to be found in the fact that Ionic columns, unlike the Doric, do not have their shaft rising straight from the sub-structure, but are set up on a pedestal with many mouldings. (Hegel, 1998, p. 676)

An online article that provided some very useful background information into the history of the column was the History of Traditional Columns and the Architectural Column. This article not only provided background with regard to the Egyptian and Greek origins of the column but also to the religious and social factors that influenced the specific form of this architectural structure.

There are a number of articles that deal with the subject in more detail and with regard to the historical development of columns. For example, an article by Chelsey Trisa ( 2005) entitled Ancient Egyptian architecture, explores the use of columns and other architectural forms in relation to the social and cultural context of the Egyptian civilization. However, articles such as the above provide only as brief and cursory glimpse into the architectural richness of this period of history. There are many other more detailed and extensive studies of the area. One study that proved to be useful in this regard was Smith's study entitled Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression (1938). This work provides an extensive and in-depth analysis of the cultural aspects that were the formative forces in the development of early Egyptian architecture and the first recognized architectural columns. For example;

The columns in the reception hall of the unfinished tomb 18, instead of being polygonal, are quatrefoil in section, and their capitals represent four closed lotus flowers bound together ( Plate XXX-2 ). The earliest example of this type of capital is found in the V Dynasty at Abusir ( Plate XXXIV-2 ). By the Middle Kingdom this kind of column with the symbolic lotus capital was either imitated from Old Kingdom examples or copied from the contemporary supports used in the houses

(Smith, 1938, p. 111)

An article that provided some very useful in-depth information on Greek as well as Roman architecture and the origins of columns was Architecture of ancient Greece. Among the studies that also provided information on the later and modern development of the column, and particularly its use and application in contemporary buildings, was Architectural Columns - Then and Now by C. Davis. Another interesting work that provided considerable detail about the way in which the column is used in modern architecture and buildings is Modern Uses of Greek Architecture by Nina Kramer,( 2010).

There are many studied that go beyond basic data and information and which explore, discuss and interrogate different views and assumptions about the use and development of the columns. Among these is a very useful article entitled Greek Architecture: Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian? By Deborah K. Dietsch. This article not only provides a fairly extensive overview of the Greek columns but also goes into detail with regard to the typed of columns. This includes clear illustrations and graphics of the various types of columns, with lucid explanation and discussion of the differences between them.

5. Comparative and Developmental Analysis

There are a number of differences as well as correspondences between the function and aesthetics of early columns and the modern versions of the column. For example, early columns were made or constructed of stone, "…some out of a single piece of stone, usually by turning on a lathe-like apparatus. Single-piece columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture" (Column: New World Encyclopaedia). Modern columns however, "...are constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick. They may then be clad in an architectural covering (or veneer), or left bare" (Column: New World Encyclopaedia). This section will explore these correspondences and differences by reviewing some central aspects of the historical development of the column

5.1. Overview of Historical Development

The history of the extensive use of ornamental columns used in part for social and religious purpose can be traced back to ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, which "… consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns" ( Trisa, 2005). Trisa (2005) describes these constructions s in more detail. "In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Graeco-Roman period" (Trisa, 2005).

In terms of the history of the column, the most commonly referred to columns are those of Egypt and Greece. These include the following Classical orders or types.

Doric

Ionic

Corinthian

Tuscan

Composite

These will be discussed at length in the following sections.

However, while the heritage of the column is often ascribed to the Greek and Roman models, the Egyptians are actually credited with creating the first columns. "Working with stone, the Ancient Egyptians crafted massive columns that had the appearance of bundled reeds in approximately 2600 BC" ( Davis).

One must also bear in mind in dealing with the history of the column and its development that there have been radical changes in materials and technologies over the centuries, which has influenced the shape, form and application of the column.

Another factor that should be continually borne in mind is the social and cultural forces that influenced the building of these columns as well as their meaning and significance a social context. In other words, cultural forces and perceptions often act in conjunction with the more materialistic aspects of building and architecture.

5.2. Egyptian Columns

The most ancient example of Egyptian columns that we have were completed in stone and were well crafted and detailed, often imitating the appearance of bundled reeds. What is of special interest in these early examples is the ornamentation and embellishment in the design, which refers to the social and cultural context of the civilization. As Smith (1938) states, "...even back then, the craftsmen who built them were concerned with function and aesthetics"(Smith, 1938, p. 67).

This is an important point in the discussion and analysis of the development of this form of architecture; in that many studies make it clear that the origins of the architectural column was heavily dependent on more than pure functionality, but that they were inspired by religious and cultural factors as well. In other words, one could argue that a history of columns necessitates an understanding of the link between the religio-cultural context and the actual physical engineering and architectural needs. One could also argue, as will be the case in the final section of this research, that in very general terms the development of the modern column has lost these religious and mythical overtones to a great extent.

In this regard, Davis also refers to the Persian culture and the use of columns. He notes that, "The columns later crafted by the Persians were even more elaborate, featuring capitals that depicted a variety of animals "( Davis ). This also links to an interesting observation made by Smith ( 1938) .In a study of ancient Egyptian buildings it appears that the first impetus towards the development of the column was more religious and aesthetic than purely structural in intention. As Smith ( 1938) notes; "At the very beginning of stone architecture we see how the Egyptian builders began to use the new material more imitatively than structurally. The ceiling, for example, of this hall is carved in imitation of the round beams of a timbered roof" (Smith, 1938, p. 67).

When discussing Egyptian architecture one has to include the work of Imhotep.

Imhotep (2655-2600 BC) was an Egyptian master builder, credited with the design and construction of many impressive buildings. One also has to understand something of the power and position that the master builder held in Egyptian society. Master builders took on many work functions, including designing and architecture. The important aspect to consider is that they were an integral part of the religious culture of the society and were esteemed for their knowledge and insight into spiritual as well as architectural matters

Among the most honored of professions in ancient Egypt was that of architect, or Chief of Works. This was the man (all the cases we know of were men) who oversaw the plans for building and constructing royal tombs, temples, pyramids, and other important edifices of the Egyptian ages.

(Egyptian Building Mania)

Imhotep was considered to be semi-divine. He is also credited with presiding over and designing the building of the famous Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara (2630-2611 BC) (Egyptian Building Mania). This pyramid was, at the time, the largest structure ever built using only stone, and one of the first using architectural columns for stability (Kemp, 2005, p. 159).

5.3. Greek and Roman Columns

Most of the information and insight that we have in Greek architecture refers to the late archaic period (550-500 BC), the Periclean age (450-430 BC), and the early to pure classical period (430-400 BC) (Architecture of ancient Greece). An important aspect of Greek and Classical columns is that they are very closely aligned to ideals and ideas about beauty and aesthetics. The columns of classical architecture represent the attempt to"… design proportioning and details that would create maximum structural harmony" (What do columns of classical architecture represent?).

Another important introductory point is that there are many developmental similarities between Greek and Roman architecture and columns. As one study emphasizes;

Greek examples are considered alongside Hellenistic and Roman periods (since Roman architecture heavily influenced by Greek), and late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century). This results in a strong bias towards temples, the only buildings which survive in large numbers. (Egyptian Building Mania)

It is also significant to note that the architect in Classical Greece was very different in many respects to our modern conception of the architect. In the first instance the architect undertook all the tasks that we commonly ascribed to the building contractor.

No distinction was made between the architect and the building contractor. The architect designed the building, hired the laborers and craftsmen who built it, and was responsible for both its budget and its timely completion. He did not enjoy any of the lofty status accorded to modern architects of public buildings. (Architecture of ancient Greece)

Temples were the most common form of Greek public architecture. They also served as storage areas and were usually constructed using lines of columns. A characteristic of Greek architecture was the absence of arches or domes; which meant that internal columns were used as structural support for the roofs of the buildings (Architecture of ancient Greece). This was especially the case with the structure of gymnasiums. To fully comprehend the use of the column in these structures one has to refer to the different orders in Classical Greek architecture.

5.4. Doric and Ionic

Most people think of Ancient Greece and Rome when referring to architectural columns, the reason for this is that "… these civilizations… developed the designs that would eventually become known as the classical orders" ( Davis). Furthermore, as Davis summarizes, these earlier developments were to lead or the more common styles of column both structurally and aesthetically that would also be carried forward into more recent time. "Columns found on Greek and Roman buildings could be fluted, often included bases and meticulously carved capitals, and were frequently crowned with grand entablatures"( Davis). These columns developed by the Greeks and Romans were structurally important as an essential support for many kinds of building.

Figure2. The Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, showing columns with Doric capitals

( Source: http://upge.wn.com/?t=ancientgreece/index12.txt)

The Doric style was found primarily in mainland Greece. The Ionic style was predominant in the cities of Ionia or Western Turkey (Architecture of ancient Greece). The essential difference between these two styles was that the Doric was more "…formal and austere, the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative" (Architecture of ancient Greece). The Corinthian style was a development of the Ionic style. These styles are reflected in the differences in the column capitals that were created.

The Doric is the oldest types of column found in these civilizations. It is also relatively plain and not as ornate as many other styles of column. It is also distinguished from the other types by not having a base. The Doric column has a many-sided shaft as well as a triangular roof which "… is often sculpted in a particular shape" ( Kramer, 2010) . For example," the frieze, one of the blocks of the entablature, might be sculpted or contain a pattern of three vertical lines interspersed with blank spaces" ( Kramer, 2010) . In the Doric style, the columns were situated on flat area known as the stylobate. The shafts of the Doric column was "…fluted with 20 parallel concave grooves; and they were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam (entablature) that they carried" (Architecture of ancient Greece).

Figure 3. The Erechtheum in Athens, showing columns with Ionic capitals

(Source: http://upge.wn.com/?t=ancientgreece/index12.txt)

In contrast to the Doric, the Ionic columns usually have a base which separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform (Architecture of ancient Greece). Furthermore, this style has scrolled capital, called a "volute." It is described as"…taller, thinner and more elegant than the Doric column. The base has many layers" ( Kramer, 2010).

A central feature of the Ionic in comparison to the Doric, which in the eyes of many critics gives it greater aesthetic appeal, is the fact that the volutes were angled on the corner columns. "… angling the volutes on the corner columns, ensured that they "read" equally when seen from either front or side facade" (Ionic Order). This made it "easier on the eye" and inculcated a more relaxed feel to these forms.

Figure 4: Ionic Order

( Source: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/greek-architecture-doric-ionic-or-corinthian.html)

The Corinthian column is a much more decorative and ornate structure. It is usually decorated with a leaf motif and has a fluted shaft and a layered base ( Kramer, 2010). In terms of proportionality, the Corinthian column is very similar to the Ionic but is often more attenuated. However, its main distinctive feature is the carved capital. Column,"… though it may be made more slender, but it stands apart by its distinctive carved capital" ( Kramer, 2010).

Figure 5. The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, showing columns with Corinthian capitals.

(Source: http://upge.wn.com/?t=ancientgreece/index12.txt)

All of these types of columns can be found in the remains of ancient Greek architecture. The Doric column tends to dominate and can be seen in many Greek constructions, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus. However, the Parthenon in fact displays a combination of both the Doric and Ionic styles. Ionic columns can be seen in buildings such as the Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis (Architecture of ancient Greece).

The Ionic column became popular during the Hellenistic period in Greece "…since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric" (Architecture of ancient Greece). This is also a clear indication of the fact that decorative and aesthetic factors were taken into account in the choice of column used in architectural design.

5.5. Social and Cultural Perspectives

When discussing the aesthetic and other functions of columns one should also take into account the fact that they were used as an intrinsic and often symbolic part of temples and places of worship. They also had an important social function as the buildings containing columns were often a focal point of social life.

For the Greeks, temples were not only places to worship the gods but also impressive symbols of their society and culture. They were built as focal points on the highest ground of every city in Greece and the conquered territories around the Mediterranean. Beneath the temples spread public meeting places, civic buildings, gymnasiums, stadiums, theaters, and housing.

(Dietsch)

Furthermore, from an aesthetic point-of-view, Greek architecture was concerned with details relating to proportion and balance; which reflected their thinking and philosophy about the balance between nature, man and the universe. Therefore, the styles or orders discussed above were not only decorative and functional but they echoed and reflected the cultural views and perspectives of the society. As one study notes:

Relationships between columns, windows, doorways, and other elements were constantly analyzed to find pleasing dimensions that were in harmony with nature and the human body. Symmetry and the unity of parts to the whole were important to Greek architecture, as these elements reflected the democratic city-state pioneered by the Greek civilization.

(Dietsch)

As has already been briefly referred to, Roman architecture to a great extent adopted Greek architectural principles and styles. "The Romans absorbed Greek influence, apparent in many aspects closely related to architecture" (Ancient Roman Architecture)