Differentiated Instruction This Work Reports

Differentiated Instruction

This work reports a case study conducted relating to differentiated instruction in a classroom with ESL or English as Second Language students.

The methodology of this study is one of a quantitative as well as a qualitative nature. This study is quantitative in terms of the study conducted by the researcher in this study and was through the adding of classroom instruction making use of Multiple Texts and Supplementary Materials. The Intervention in this study was adding to instruction of more visual aides and graphic organizers to help learn material. Labs required a pictorial representation of main concepts of lab. This study was however, also qualitative in nature since part of the report of this study is in the form of a literature review which is interpretive in nature.

BACKGROUND of the STUDY

The research reported in this work was conducted in a science classroom among 27 students (14 boys and 13 girls). Of these students, seven were Somalian (5 male and 2 female) and 20 students were African-American. Lab activities were conducted in heterogeneous small groups and tests were written in English. Somalian students have all tests read to them in English and Somalian. Two science labs were conducted in this study.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework of this research study is that of Gardener's Multiple Intelligences, which essentially states that different individuals are talented in various, and different 'areas' or 'types' of intelligence. The different 'intelligences' as identified in the work of Howard Gardener are those listed and described as follows:

1) Linguistic intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence." (Smith, 2002)

2) Logical-mathematical intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, in entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking." (Smith, 2002)

3) Musical intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence." (Smith, 2002)

4) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related." (Smith, 2002)

5) Spatial intelligence: "...involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas." (Smith, 2002)

6) Interpersonal intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counselors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence." (Smith, 2002)

7) Intrapersonal intelligence: This type of intelligence: "...entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives." (Smith, 2002)

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Source: Pickering (2006)

TERMS & DEFINITIONS

1) Differentiated Instruction: "To differentiate instruction is to recognize students varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests, and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to approach teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class."(Hall, 2001 National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum). Differentiation is a "teaching concept in which the classroom teacher plans for the diverse needs of students. The teacher must consider such differences as the students:

Learning styles, skill levels, and rates;

Learning difficulties;

Language proficiency;

Background experiences and knowledge;

Interests;

Motivation

Ability to attend;

Social and emotional development;

Various intelligences;

Levels of abstraction; and Physical needs.(Walker, 2) English as Second Language (ESL) Instruction: This is best defined in the work of Gunderson, Belanger, and Cooper (2007) who state that ESL is inclusive of the following:

Listening: Students must listen to and understand the teachers' language and the language of instruction in such activities as lectures, tutoring sessions, and group learning activities. They must learn to communicate with English speakers, both informally and formally in different social situations.

Speaking: Students must be able to communicate orally in instructional and communicative situations. They must be able to communicate appropriately with others in and out of their classrooms. They must learn social conventions related to English such as pragmatic differences between communicating with classmates (other children) and with teachers (adults).

Reading: Students must learn to read and comprehend text at their age and grade levels. They must learn to make inferences and to read critically. Critical reading skills are particularly important in classes such as Social Studies. The ability to read and understand complex discourse its accompanying informational graphics is particularly important in courses such as science and math.

Writing: Students must be able to write at age and grade-appropriate levels. They must be able to write appropriate material related to different genres such as formal tests or informal letters may require. Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper (2007)

RESEARCH QUESTION

How does differentiated instruction for students with English as a Second Language (ESL) including visual representations and graphic organizers impact achievement in science context?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oftentimes there is a failure to use differentiated instruction unknowingly because teachers are not properly educated and trained to do so however, an interesting case study in British Columbia reports findings which illustrate that differentiated instruction is being used unknowingly as well. One such study is that reported in the work of Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper (2007) entitled: "A Review of ESL Services in the Abbotsford School Board" relates a study of great magnitude conducted at the University of British Columbia. This study is a review of the current policies, practices, approaches and methods related to the English as a Second Language (ESL) services in the Abbotsford School District." (2007) This study was conducted through classroom observations in order to "develop a picture of methods, material, and approaches that were apparent in ESL and mainstream classrooms." (Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper, 2007) Furthermore, an Internet-Based survey was conducted in order that individuals might participate online. Stated is: "The Online questionnaires asked for basic demographic information and contained forced-choice and open response questions for teachers, administrators, staff, parents, interested citizens, and students. The URLs for the Online surveys were communicated to administrators, teachers, and staff via e-mail by School Board Office personnel. School personnel communicated the URL to students." (Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper, 2007) it is stated that data in this study "were collected by the three researchers over a period of seven days, including approximately 150 hours of classroom observations, individual interviews, and focus groups. A total of 22 principals and assistant principals were interviewed, including three from non-review schools. Approximately 120 mainstream teachers, 18 Teaching Assistants, 14 ESL teachers, 5 Trustees, and about 30 other school-based personnel were interviewed individually or in focus groups. Data were collected by the three researchers over a period of seven days, including approximately 150 hours of classroom observations, individual interviews, and focus groups. A total of 22 principals and assistant principals were interviewed, including three from non-review schools. Approximately 120 mainstream teachers, 18 Teaching Assistants, 14 ESL teachers, 5 Trustees, and about 30 other school-based personnel were interviewed individually or in focus groups." (Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper, 2007)

Findings of the study state that most of the ESL students (63.60%) indicated that they were not assisted by ESL classes with their English and 57.10% indicated that ESL classes had not assisted them with their course work either. Indicating that they had not been assisted by ESL classes in succeeding in their other classes was 45.60%. The most difficulty that ESL students in this study reported were the difficulties they experienced in the following:

Understanding English vocabulary - 36.40%

Talking to English-speaking classmates - 31.80%

Writing English - 27.30%

Reading English - 22.70%

Learning in academic classes - 9.10%

Understanding teachers - 18.20% (Gunderson, Belanger and Cooper, 2007)

Walker (nd) in the U.S. Department of Education work entitled: "Differentiated Instruction" states that there are three principles within the realm of differentiated instruction:

1) Learning environments must feel emotionally safe for learning to take place;

2) to learn students must experience appropriate levels of challenge; and 3) Each brain needs to make its own meaning of ideas and skills.

The work of Sahladana (2007) states: "Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach in which educational content, process, and product are adapted according to student readiness, interest, and learning profile. Unlike individualized instruction, in which teaching must be directed to the specific needs and skills of each individual student, differentiated instruction addresses the needs of student clusters." T. he following illustration provides the characteristics of 'fully differentiated' and 'not differentiated' instruction in programs and classrooms.

Differences in Programs and Classrooms that are Differentiated and those which are not Differentiated

Source: Walker (nd) U.S. Department of Education Publication

Therefore, differentiated instruction may take many forms and may utilize various instructional methods in differentiation of instruction and includes those listed in the table above under the heading 'Differentiated'. Flexibility is 'key' in this pursuit and instruction that is 'reactive', 'fixed', or 'closed' is not differentiated because differentiated instruction is never characterized by any of these three elements. The work of Baum and Nichols (2007) states that there are four keys to differentiation. Those four keys are as follows:

The teacher should know their students and themselves in their role of teacher;

The teacher should know their curriculum;

The teacher should develop effective differentiation strategies; and the teacher should keep it simple, begin slowly and socialize while teaching. (Saldahana, 2007)

Four empirical studies have been conducted which provide evidence that "incidental learning improves vocabulary when the oral discourse is aligned with the visual images. (Neuman & Koskinen, 1992) Intentional learning improves vocabulary by:

1) Teaching words (Perez, 1992, Carlo et al., 2004; Biemiller and Boote, 2006);

2) Teach strategies (Carlo, et al., 2004);

3) Build word consciousness (Carlo et al., 2004);

4) Immerse students in a language- rich environment (Collins 2005; Carol et al., 2004) (National Literacy Panel, nd)

The National Literacy Panel additionally relates that "adjustments are needed to build proficiency in the context of content area instruction, but these were rarely described in detail:

1) Emphasis upon phonemes not available in home language;

2) Building on student's first language strengths;

3) Efforts to make word-meaning clear through a variety of techniques;

4) Identifying and clarifying difficult passages;

5) Ample opportunities for students to practice oral language aligned with the curriculum; and 6) providing extra practice reading words, sentences and stories. (nd)

The work entitled: "English: Strategies for Teaching Limited English Proficient (LEP) Students" states that five 'key' elements that will be found in a language learning environment that is effective are the following strategies which assist students in their access of the content material:

1) Comprehensible input -- Teachers can make their language more comprehensible by modifying their speech by avoiding colloquialisms and speaking clearly, adjusting teaching materials, adding redundancy and context, and scaffolding information within lessons.

2) Reduced anxiety level -- a student's emotions play a pivotal role in assisting or interfering with learning a second language. Teachers can assist students by creating a comfortable environment that encourages participation and risk taking without fear of feeling embarrassed or foolish (Collier, 1995; Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrell, 1983).

3) Contextual clues -- Visual support makes language more comprehensible. For example, a grammar lesson using manipulatives may be more understandable than an explanation of the grammar rule. Even social language is more comprehensible when context is added. For example, understanding a face-to-face conversation in which facial expressions and gestures are used is easier than understanding a telephone conversation when context clues are nonexistent (Cummins, 1981).

4) Verbal interaction -- Students need opportunities to work together to solve problems and use English for meaningful purposes. They need to give and receive information and complete authentic tasks.

5) Active participation -- Lessons that encourage active involvement motivate LEP students, engage them in the learning process, and help them remember content more easily. (Virginia Department of Education, 2006)

The Virginia Department of Education states that strategies in teaching that can be used to reinforce vocabulary learning includes the following strategies:

1) Word walls: Keep a running list of the new vocabulary on a word wall. Such a visual cue can help students with word recognition, automaticity, decoding, and spelling;

2) Student-made dictionaries: Have students establish their own dictionaries in sections of their notebooks or as flashcards on spiral bound index cards. Students can write definitions, draw pictures and diagrams, give examples, write in a sentence, or translate in their first language. Such practices influence independent learning and can motivate LEP students to take charge of their own learning (Brown, 2001; Peregoy & Boyle, 2005);

3) Word games: Offer opportunities to encourage a love of words and their power, as suggested by researchers (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2004; Gaskins, 2004; Juel & Deffes, 2004);

4) Classroom library: Establish an informal system where students can access fiction and non-fiction books easily for outside reading. Reading books related to their content areas is a natural way to reinforce vocabulary and concepts. Harvey and Goudvis (2000) have an extensive list of recommended titles;

5) Teach by integrating the four language modes (listening, speaking, reading, writing) into content-area lessons. One way of ensuring LEP participation is by scaffolding instruction through the different language modes.

6) Scaffold instruction. Teachers can gradually increase the cognitive demand of the lesson after first establishing the language proficiency of the LEP students. It is important to allow LEP students to feel successful in the classroom for motivation and continued involvement in the learning process (Brown, 2001; Peregoy & Boyle, 2005). Scaffolding requires the teacher to decrease the language demands, provide temporary contextual supports, and maintain high cognitive development;

7) Use a variety of modes of instruction:

a) design multi-sensory lessons (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic); and b) Use visuals whenever possible to reinforce auditory instruction (i.e., charts, graphs, manipulatives, diagrams, models, real objects).

Use manipulatives as a reading and writing strategy to scaffold instruction. Manipulatives can be Cuisenaire rods, pipe cleaners, beans, markers, or any tangible item that can be used to represent ideas. Have students work in small groups to represent the main ideas of a reading, a section of a chapter in a science textbook, for example, or an important historical document, by using manipulatives. In doing so, students will have to use oral language to negotiate meaning and to agree on ways to represent meaning. New vocabulary will be used naturally throughout the process. Misconceptions may be clarified as well. Students will have to use critical thinking skills to analyze and then build a representation of their understanding of the reading. When groups are finished, have each group verbalize their final representations. As each group discusses their product, LEP students will have read, listened, analyzed, discussed, and thought about each main idea while recycling related concepts and vocabulary. Take a digital photograph of each group's product. On a subsequent day, have students paste the photograph of their representation into a word processing document. Then have the students label parts of their final product if necessary. Have students re-present the main ideas of the reading by using the photographs as the basis of a writing assignment. Having students write a paragraph or essay is another way to assess the LEP students' comprehension of content-area facts as well as their academic writing ability;

8) Design hands-on activities that make all students active learners. Use Reciprocal Teaching (Herrell, 2000; Peregoy & Boyle, 2005; Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan & Brown, 2004; Ruddell, 2006), which involves step-by-step procedures that allow students to become responsible for teaching and learning;

9) Vary groupings throughout the lesson (i.e., independent work, pair work, small groups, whole class);

10) Vary the participants according to English language proficiency when assigning pair work or group work. At times, pair LEP students with native-English speakers. At other times, pair LEP students with other LEP students;

11) Assess the dynamics of the different groups and monitor the activities;

12) Use real-life problem-solving situations to teach new concepts; and 13) Make interdisciplinary connections whenever possible.

The work of Shaw (2003) entitled: "Scaffolding" published in the OAJE Newsletter states that strategies that are successful in scaffolding instruction include the following strategies:

Directions that give more instruction - or less;

Icons to help interpret print;

Using before, during and after;

Using graphic organizers;

Use of manipulatives;

Matching text to readers;

Small group instruction;

Mini-workshops for those who need it;

Videotaping or taping the instructions so students can watch them as needed; and Flexible timelines (some students work at their own pace; others have assignments given in smaller increments allowing them to complete one part before moving on to another)

According to the National Literacy Panel "Very few empirical studies focus exclusively on comprehensive and language-minority students." The work of Bean (1982) reports a study with findings that text can be simplified by omitting trivial elements and the work of Fung, Wilkinson and Moore (2003) report findings that reciprocal teaching on alternate days using L1 first was a successful method in teaching. The National Literacy Panel additionally reports that there are too few studies that determine the best method of facilitating comprehension in language-minority students. Shames (1998) and Swicegood (1990) state findings that "strategy instruction...unlike first language research did not always help reading comprehension." (National Literacy Panel, nd) Saldhana (2007) states that in classrooms where teachers use differentiated instruction: "the responsibility for learning is shared by all. It becomes a community of learners, characterized by:

1) Complex, challenging learning environments and authentic tasks;

2) Social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning;

3) Multiple representations of content;

4) Understanding that knowledge is constructed; and 5) Student-centered instruction (Saldhana, 2007)

Chapman (2002) in the work entitled: "Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't fit all. " presents the practical techniques and processes that teachers can use to adjust learning based on individual students' knowledge, skills, experience, preferences, and needs. The most recent and best practices in pedagogy -- the ones that make a real and positive difference in student achievement -- are explored in-depth, including:

Creating a climate for learning;

Knowing the learner;

Assessing the learner;

Adjusting, compacting, and grouping; and Instructional strategies for student success

The work of Schack and Wermuth (2000) entitled: "How to serve slow starters, cruisers, and high-speed learners" relates the options for:

1) Content;

2) Process

3) Product and 4) Resource differentiation which may be used in the classroom to further the learning of ESL students.

Those are shown in the following three items:

1) Options for Content Differentiation: Abstractness (Systems, Wellness)

Possible themes

Change

Community

Conflict

Exploration

Force

Order

Interdependence

Complexity (multiple abstractions): vegetarian/vegan, religious laws, medical conditions

Variety (different aspects of the content): connotations of food, cost, time to prepare

Methods of inquiry (how to): Interviewing, data gathering and analysis, qualitative research techniques, making inferences (from cookbooks), garbage can archaeology

Real-world applications: Self, peers, special groups, school cafeteria, home

Connections to other disciplines:

Mathematics: computing Calories, fat, fiber, vitamins, minerals; eating patterns across cultures/countries, e.g. stomach cancer related to eating patterns or race; statistical analysis of data.

Science: nutrients, phytochemicals, antioxidants; land use and resources related to different foods.

Social Studies: cultural variations in food, geography: economics, political science (government food support policies), history and anthropology; eating patterns of the past.

Language Arts: descriptive writing, analytical writing (restaurant reviews), cookbooks as a form of writing (especially if they include memoirs), debate, awareness of audience, oral and written communication.

Art: graphic design, layout, illustration. (Schack and Wermuth, 2000)

2) Options for Process Differentiation: Higher Levels of Bloom's Taxonomy: Higher levels of Bloom's Taxonomy.

Analysis: Analyze a food diary, the school cafeteria's menu, or restaurant's menu with respect to healthy eating habits

Synthesis: creating a better eating guideline than the food pyramid

Creativity

Fluency: Brainstorm types of food within each category of the pyramid

Flexibility: Replace foods in the traditional pyramid with those typical of another culture.

Originality: Create advertising that will persuade people to eat more healthy foods

Elaboration: Within categories of the food pyramid, arrange foods from most to least healthy based on factors such as amount of fat, fiber, vitamins, etc.

Morphological analysis: foods from the various groups on one axis; ways foods can be prepared (steamed, boiled, baked, broiled, fried, roasted, raw) on the other.

Cross-impact matrix: Health concerns, preferences, advertising, economic factors

Metaphors/analogies: Create metaphors and/or analogies for: each of the food groups; nutrition;