Disproportionality and Disparity Issues in Child Welfare

Disparity…Child Welfare Services REVISED

Disproportionality and disparity are long-standing issues in child welfare. Kirk and Griffith (2008) wrote that studies focused on documenting their existence and describing their features appeared in the early 1970s; researchers then began to look at possible sources. Were racial and ethnic minority children at greater risk, or were their disproportionate numbers the result of systematic discrimination or institutional racism?

Hill (2007) defined the disproportionality rate as derived by dividing the percentage of children of a racial/ethnic group at a specific decision-making stage in the child welfare system by the percentage of children in that same racial/ethnic group in the census population. Disparity is defined as the differences in responses to children determined to be at risk. The disparity ratio is derived by dividing the disproportionality ratio for specific non-white groups at various stages in the decision-making process by the disporportionality rates for whites (Hill, 2007).

A study by the Casey-CSSP Alliance for Racial Equity in Childcare (Hill, 2007) furthered work already done in the area of disproportionality and disparity in child welfare services. The Alliance researchers drew a comprehensive picture of racial disporportionality and disparity through analysis of data at national, state, and county geographic levels, which they assert can be generalized to the large neighborhood level in major U.S. cities.

The 2005 census population distribution for all racial/ethnic children under age 18 revealed that non-Hispanic whites comprised 60% of all children in the U.S., non-Hispanic blacks comprised 15%, non-Hispanic-American Indians comprised one percent, non-Hispanic Asian and pacific Islanders comprised four percent, and Hispanics comprised 20%. Dettlaff & Rycraft (2010) cited recent national data revealing that although African-American children represent 15% of the total child population in the U.S., the account for 32% of placements in foster care.

Kirk and Griffith (2008) further cited a study by Fluke, Yuan, Hedderson and Curtis (2003) that suggested overreporting was responsible for a larger portion of disproportionality than the system's contribution, "but by no means exclusively responsible."

That disproportionality and disparity exist in the delivery of child welfare services is clearly demonstrated. The purpose of this paper is to highlight disproportionality and disparity and propose one solution that could help rectify some of the problems. The establishment of universal preschool would benefit all children without regard to race or ethnicity. It would level the playing field by providing the same child care services and educational benefits to everyone.

The Issues with Disproportionality and Disparity

Derezotes and Hill (n.d.) address the question of why disproportionality is a problem. They noted that children of color remain in the child welfare system for longer periods of time. There is a high correlation between longer stays and higher levels of mental health problems, poor academic performance, and anti-social behavior. Dettlaff & Rycraft (2010) reported that studies done on disproportionality have sought to identify contributing factors in the following areas: individual and family risk factors, community risk factors, and agency and systemic factors.

The Race Matters Consortium identified causal factors correlated with risk factors among children, such as mental disorders, physical disabilities, antisocial behaviors, and delinquent behaviors. Among families, risk factors include emotional stability, substance abuse, poor parenting practices, homelessness, and unemployment. There are a disproportionate number of African-Americans living in poverty in the U.S.; Sedak and Broadhurst (1996) reported that the incidence of maltreatment was 26 times higher in families earning under $15,000 annually compared with families earning $30,000 (Detlaff & Rycraft, 2010).

These problems multiply at the community level: poverty, crime, substance abuse and a culture with high levels of child maltreatment and pervasive, often multi-generational, joblessness.

The child welfare system itself is flawed; factors contributing to issues associated with disproportionality include size of caseload, turnover of staff, and lack of racial and ethnic diversity of workers, which can lead to worker biases (Race Matters Consortium). The Race Matters Consortium also reported disparities in delivery of services to ethnic and minority children. It recommends further research to guide policy at federal, state and local levels.

The Race Matters Consortium developed a model describing two paths that children could potentially follow in and through and child welfare system. Both paths look at risk factors that tend to result in maltreatment. In the first path, there is an absence of any safety measures to protect the child and keep him or her from needing referral. The second path suggests the possibility of factors that could mediate the risk of maltreatment. The second path would result in proportional representation of all children in the system. One potential solution to the problem of disproportionality and disparity in the delivery of child welfare services is the creation of a universal preschool program.

Universal Preschool: The Time Has Come

There are over 20 million children of preschool age in the United States (United States Census Bureau [U.S. Census Bureau], 2008). As Lewis (2009) pointed out, "The welfare of very young children was a federal concern through most of the last century in a fragmented way." In early 2009, the Obama administration pledged $10 billion toward pre-kindergarten programs to expand access and improve the quality of existing programs, including Head Start (Lewis, 2009). Head Start is a public program that represents just one of the current options for pre-kindergarten available to parents. Other options consist of family care, private school, and private in-home care.

There is little dispute of the efficacy of early childhood education. Research has shown the first five years of life are critical times of learning ("NGA," 2008; Heckman, 2006). High quality early education is linked to higher educational and employment attainment later in life (Belfield, 2006; Garces, Thomas, & Currie, 2002) and has been shown to reduce achievement gaps (Heckman, 2006; Howes et al., 2008; K. Magnuson, Lahaie, & Waldfogel, 2006; K.A. Magnuson, Ruhm, & Waldfogel, 2007). Preschool programs have demonstrated effectiveness in increasing cognitive abilities in math, problem-solving skills, prewriting and spelling (Gormley, 2005; Gormley, Gayer, Phillips, & Dawson, 2005; Howes et al., 2008; K.A. Magnuson et al., 2007).

However, as Lewis (2009) points out, current childhood education "exists separately from the larger K-12 system in most states [leading] to poor transition systems from early childhood into regular kindergarten or first grade." Poor transition is exacerbated by the disporportionality and disparity seen in preschool programs; children come together in public school with different experiences and levels of readiness. There already exists a disparity nationwide with regard to public school offerings in kindergarten. Not all states mandate kindergarten and programs vary among half- and full-day offerings. Age eligibility also varies by state; in some places, children must attain the age of five by the school start date (usually September 1). Other states use cutoff dates in October or later. There is thus variance in the chronological age, not to mention the developmental age, at which children can start their public education. Universal preschool could help provide more equitable preparation for attendance in kindergarten.

Tilbury (n.d.) called the child welfare system "part of the institutional framework for managing social inequities" (p. 5). Providing a remedy for social inequities was the intent of the Head Start Program, initiated in the 1960s. The program became one that was not racially or ethnically diverse.

Overrepresentation in child welfare services thus "reflects the disadvantaged position of black, indigenous and ethnic minority families" (Tilbury,). As such, enrollment in a program such as Head Start can be stigmatizing for families. Even then, racial and ethnic disproportionality and disparity may not be accurately reflected. Some studied examining disproportional representation have found that economic factors (poverty and receipt of welfare payments) are more statistically significant than race in determining child welfare involvement, but the interaction with other factors such as family structure, parental substance abuse and mental ill-health is less clear (Hill, 2006; Miller, 2008, in Tilbury).