The Thematic Apperception Test's achromatic cards and depression bias

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) has long been used to assist psychoanalysts elicit fantasy material from their patients (Morgan & Murray, 1935). According to Belleck and Murray (1973), the TAT was designed to bring forth interpretations by subject of social situations. Stories and pictures reveal some of the dominant drives, emotions, sentiments, conflicts, and complexes of a personality. The original cards used in the test were drawn or painted in color (Morge, 1995), but over time and much use, they became more and more achromatic. This achromatic appearances of the cards has caused many to speculate about their validity, especially, in patients suffering from depression. The question being asked by some researchers was, "would the achromatic appearance of the cards cause a depressed story whether or not the subject was depressed?

The Thematic Apperception Test is an untimed, individually administered psychological test used for personality assessment. It is suitable for use on persons ages 14-40 to identify dominant drives, emotions, and conflicts, as well as levels of emotional maturity, observational skills, imagination, and creativity. The subject is shown a series of pictures, one at a time, and is asked to make up a story about each one, with his responses being recorded and evaluated by a trained psychologist. The test is usually given in two sessions, with 10 pictures shown in each one. Sessions are untimed but generally last about an hour (Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2003).

Also, there is evidence that the TAT's validity is problematic in other ways. Many TAT studies do not use standardized scoring methods. A review of 105 studies of McClelland's (1961) scoring scheme (Spangler, 1992) provided both good and bad news for the TAT. The good news was that McClelland's scheme performed about as well as self-report measures of achievement when measured against objective criteria for achievement (i.e. grades). The bad news was that the TAT did not perform especially well; the correlations between objectively assessed achievement and both the TAT and self-report measures were statistically significant, (i.e. too large to have arisen by chance), but very low in magnitude (The Skeptical Inquirer).

Since there exists no definitive study based on the data concerning the achromatic pictures and their effect, it seems logical that one should be conducted in order to ascertain whether or not the achromatic cards of the TAT test can elicit false positive readings in patients being treated for clinical depression. Plans were formulated in order to test the hypothesis that false positives can result from a set of TAT cards whose scenes and objects are only presented in shades of black, white, or gray.

Restatement of the Problem

After a thorough review of the relevant literature which included anecdotal notes from test participants (Piattelli-Palmarini, 1994), (Spangler, W. 1992), (Vane, 1981) and (Gittleman, K. 1986), it was evident that there was enough evidence to support the assumption that the TAT card results were biased for the condition of depression since the cards being used are achromatic.

Statement of the Hypothesis

My hypothesis is that achromatic TAT pictures elicit false-positives for depression. If this hypothesis is proven correct, it will be invalid to use this test to assist in diagnosing clinical depression.

This is a quantitative research study and involves the collection and analysis of data in numerical form. A quantitative research project is used most often to; A) test the existence of relationships between variables of interest (based on hypotheses derived from theory) or B) make inferences about the quantity of specific attributes in a population based on measurements derived form a sample (Quantitative Research, 2002).

In contrast to qualitative researchers, quantitative researchers are more likely to assume that there is a single reality that can be determined (within a range of probability) using appropriate objective result methods. Accordingly, research instructions, interventions, and measures are standardized to minimize or control for possible sources of error or bias. Research designs and methods are chosen to enable quantitative comparison (e.g. across distinct groups, settings, and/or time periods). Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistic to permit the researcher to describe the magnitude and/or direction of observed values, trends, and relationships, and the probability that they could have occurred by chance (Alberta Consultative Health Research Network).

Criteria do exist for evaluating the quality of quantitative research. They include:

Construct validity - is there evidence that the study

Succeeded in measuring the attributes or variables the researchers intended to measure?

Reliability - is there evidence that the data collection

Instruments used provided accurate, consistent measures of the attributes or variables the researcher intended to measure?

Internal validity - did the research design adequately control for extraneous variables and eliminate plausible rival exhaustive explanations for the research findings?

External validity - did the research employ a sampling strategy that permits the generalizations of the results beyond the specific research participants, research setting, and time period, and if so, to which target population, and if so, to what target population(s) in which settings? (Alberta Consultative Health Research, 2000)

In any study, the characteristics of the subjects and the independent and dependent variables define the research question... For an experimental study, the main independent variable is the one indicating when the dependent variable is measured (e.g. before, during, and after the treatment). If there is a control group (as in controlled trials) or control treatment.

In addition to their weaknesses in terms of, projective reliability and validation tests also require more time and skill to administer than more objective testing methods. However, they continue to be employed because of their usefulness in helping psychologists obtain a comprehensive picture of an individual's personality. The results are most useful when combined with information obtained from personal observation, other test scores, and familiarity with a client's previous history. In addition, projective tests make it especially difficult for subjects to skew their answers in a particular direction as they sometimes attempt to do with other types of assessment (Skeptical Enquirer, 2000).

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is, along with the Rorschach, among the most widely used, researched, and taught projective tests in existence. It consists of a series of pictures of relatively ambiguous scenes to which subjects are requested to make up stories or fantasies concerning what is, has, and is going to happen, along with a description of the thoughts and feelings of the various characters depicted. The test protocol thus provides the examiner with a rich source of data, based on the subject's perceptions and imagination, for use in the understanding of the subject's current needs, motives, emotions, and conflicts, both conscious and unconscious. Its use in clinical assessment is generally part of a larger battery of tests and interview data.

Methodology of the study

Subjects - One hundred and twenty students were selected randomly from the Developmental Psychology classes at Armstrong State College, Savannah, Georgia. Participants were screened to ensure that they have not previously taken the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Materials - The Adult Form of the Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) was administered to each subject to screen for depression. Two TAT cards were chosen for this experiment - #4 and #5. Both cards were chosen specifically because they could be used on any participant regardless of age or sex. Two copies of each card were made on a copy machine, colorized with crayolas, the reproduced on a color copier. Each packet contained one card in color and one in black and white.

Procedures - As stated previously, the cards included in the packet were chosen because they could be administered to all participants. After an extensive review of the literature noting which cards other researchers used, the decision was made to use card # 4 because of its overall popularity and to use card # 5 because of its unpopularity among researchers.

Each test subject received an appointment in order to participate in this present study. The subjects were randomly given one of four TAT stimuli packets. Packet One consisted of TAT card # 4 (in color) then TAT card # 5 (in black and white). Packet Two was TAT card # 4 in black and white and with TAT card # 5 in color. Packet Three was TAT card # 5 in color followed by TAT card # 4 in black and white. Finally, the fourth packet was TAT card # 5 in black and white and TAT card # 4 in color. The packets were distributed in this manner in an attempt to find out if an effect related to the order in which the subjects received their pictures was existent.

After receiving their packets, each subject was asked to write a story about the first picture in their packet. Group instructions included an admonition to take their time and to write a full, detailed story of what they believed was depicted in the picture. When each subject finished writing, they were instructed to remove the second picture from the packet and follow the same directions. After they had taken the second picture from the envelop, they were not allowed to look at the first picture again. They were instructed again to examine the second picture, take their time and write in detail what was happening in the picture they had. When each subject was finished, he/she was given the BDI (In philosophy, the most standard model of folk psychology is belief-desire-intention, (BDI) psychology, on the assumption that how it is that, as lay people, we understand other people, is in terms of their beliefs intentions and their desires). Each subject was then debriefed individually.

The stories were scored by three upper level psychology majors from Armstrong State College. These assistants had been trained by one of the clinical psychology professors in how to determine if the story is a depressed one. Each scorer received a copy of each story and was asked to assign it the numeral 1 if it is obviously depressed, and a zero if it is not depressed. The scorers worked independently of each other and had no knowledge of what cards were used or what order they were presented in.

The BDI was scored according to the BDI scoring manual. Only non-depressed participants were used in the study. A Pearson-R test was performed on the data to determine if there was a correlation of depressed stories in regard to the chromatic and achromatic cards.

Operational Definitions of Variables anecdotal notes - An anecdotal record is "a written record kept in a positive tone of a child's progress based on milestones particular to that child's social, emotional, physical, aesthetic, and cognitive development," notes the American Association of School Administrators (1992, p. 21). The teacher observes and then records a child's actions and work throughout the day while the activities are occurring. The recording is informal and typically is based on notes or a checklist with space for writing comments. It is done only when appropriate and is not forced; in fact, there may be days between entries. The anecdotal record is positive in tone. It emphasizes "what a child can do and his or her achievements, as opposed to what he or she cannot do," explains the American Association of School Administrators (1992, p. 2). It is useful for reporting a child's progress and achievements during parent-teacher conferences.

Achromatic - a. free from color (Information Please Dictionary Online)

Beck Depression Inventory - (Beck, 1967) measures the level of depression a person in experiencing. It is measured based on the following: (1) mood, (2) pessimism, (3) sense of failure, (4) lack of satisfaction, (5) feelings of guilt, (6) sense of punishment, (7) self-dislike, (8) self-accusation, (9) suicidal wishes, (10) crying, (11) irritability, (12) social withdrawal, (13) indecisiveness, (14) distortion of body image, (15) work inhibition, (16) sleep disturbance, (17) fatigue, (18) loss of appetite, (19) weight loss, (20) somatic preoccupation, and (21) loss of libido.

Construct validity - operationalizations in your study to the theoretical constructs on which those operationalizations were based. I find that it helps me to divide the issues into two broad territories that I call the "land of theory" and the "land of observation." The land of theory is what goes on inside your mind, and your attempt to explain or articulate this to others. It is all of the ideas, theories, hunches and hypotheses that you have about the world. In the land of theory you will find your idea of the program or treatment as it should be. You will find the idea or construct of the outcomes or measures that you believe you are trying to affect. The land of observation consists of what you see happening in the world around you and the public manifestations of that world. In the land of observation you will find your actual program or treatment, and your actual measures or observational procedures. Presumably, you have constructed the land of observation based on your theories. You developed the program to reflect the kind of program you had in mind. You created the measures to get at what you wanted to get at.

A definitive study - Authoritative and complete, Precisely defined or explicit. (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company).

Depression - The act of depressing. The condition of being depressed. In Psychology. A psychiatric disorder characterized by an inability to concentrate, insomnia, loss of appetite, anhedonia, feelings of extreme sadness, guilt, helplessness and hopelessness, and thoughts of death. Also called clinical depression.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved..

A false-positives - Medicine. Indicating the presence of a particular disease, condition, or organism: a positive test for pregnancy.

A internal validity - An experiment is internally valid to the extent that it shows a cause-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Methodology A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline or engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods: the methodology of genetic studies; a poll marred by faulty methodology. The study or theoretical analysis of such working methods

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.

Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

A projective reliability and validation tests - system> An attribute of any system that consistently produces the same results, preferably meeting or exceeding its specifications.

A quantitative research project - Expressed or expressible as a quantity. Of, relating to, or susceptible of measurement. Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.