Dysgraphia: characteristics, causes, and educational interventions

Dysgraphia

The objective of this work is to research the problem of 'Dysgraphia' including the history, symptoms, statistical information and treatments if any. Further, the various types of assistive technology tools that can be utilized to improve the functionality of an individual in an educational environment with this specific disability will be explored. This work will also address the legal responsibility of the educational system in provision of such devices.

According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities Dysgraphia is a processing disorder that has difficulties that may undergo changes throughout the individual's lifetime. The University of Washington defines Dysgraphia as being a disability in which the individual 'has a difficult time with the physical task of forming letters and words using a pen and paper and has difficulty producing legible handwriting." (2002) Symptoms and signs of Dysgraphia include the following: (1) Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task); (2) Inconsistencies: mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular sizes, shapes or slant of letters; (3) Unfinished words or letters, omitted words; (4) Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margin; (5) Inconsistent spaces between words and letters; (6) Cramped or unusual grip especially holding the writing instrument very close to the paper, or holding thumb over two fingers and writing from the wrist; (7) Strange wrist, body or paper position; (8) Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is writing; (9) Slow or labored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible; and (10) Content which does not reflect the student's other language skills. (Jones, 1998; National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2007)

I. RESPONSIBILITIES of SCHOOLS

The work of Newman (1998) states that "Learning disabilities can be caused by a variety of factors including genetic defects, injury or illness. All of the disabilities have a physical counterpart, meaning they are caused by anomalies in physical structures or biochemistry." Dysgraphia is a handwriting disability and while it may "exist in isolation" Dysgraphia occurs more commonly along with other learning disabilities such as "dyslexia, aphasia, dyscalculia, and attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity." Dysgraphia or handwriting disabilities "fall under the federal IDEA-Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act" as well as the provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act which requires that all students with learning disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment and included in the general classroom. Teachers must follow the Individualized Education Plan (IEP), which was designed to address students with special needs.

II. ASSISTIVE METHODS

Methods of providing the student with Dysgraphia assistance include: (1) Accommodations to reduce the impact that writing has on the student's learning or expressing of what has been learned without making substantial changes to the process or the product; (2) Modifications to assignments or the expectations of the student in order to meet the learning needs of the individual students; and (3) Remediation to provide instruction and opportunities to make improvements in handwriting skills. (Jones, 1998) Jones relates that in consideration of accommodations or modifications of expectations of the student in dealing with the disability of Dysgraphia the teacher should consider making changes to: (1) the rate of producing written work; (2) the volume of the work to be produced; (3) the complexity of the writing task; (4) the Tools used to produce the written work; and (5) the Format of the work. (1998)

III. ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES

While the assistive and adaptive technologies available to assist Dysgraphia do not offer a cure, the tools do "compensate" and allow the individual with Dysgraphia to demonstrate their intelligence and knowledge. (Washing State University, 2002; paraphrased) the work of Quenneville (2001) states: "The potential for assistive technology in general education classrooms for students with disabilities is great. Its benefits include enhancing academic achievement in written expression, reading, mathematics and spelling; improving organization; and foster social acceptance." Quenneville further relates that support technology "...provides many benefits by facilitating writing for students with learning disabilities who often find the writing process frustrating." (2001) When opportunities are provided to the students with Dysgraphia that accommodate writing challenges "they are more successful in the general education classroom." (Quenneville, 2001) Collaboration between classroom teachers and technology specialists is a requirement. Assistive technology has two primary purposes which are: (1) to augment an individual's strengths, thereby counterbalancing the effect of the disability; and (2) to provide an alternative mode of performing a task." (Quenneville, 2001) Assistive technology may either replace an ability that the student does not possess or assistive technology may provide necessary support for task completion due to impairment of the ability of the student.

One type of assistive tool is the computer, which assists the student through changing the writing process "...making it easier to develop and record ideas, to edit ideas, and to publish and share with others." (Quenneville, 2001) There are various supports, which may be used at various stages of the writing process. Talking word processors provide audio feedback to the student during the writing process including reading letters, words and sentences aloud and customization of features to the student's individual needs is possible. Types of talking word processors are those as follows:

1) Intellitalk II (Intellitools, Inc.);

2) Kid Works (Deluxe Knowledge Adventure);

3) Read & Write 5.0 (TextHELP Systems Ltd.); and 4) Write Out Loud 3.0 (Don Johnston, Inc.) (Quenneville, 2001)

Talking word processors generally include talking features as well as talking spell-checking systems. Another feature generally offered is the word prediction feature "which augments spelling and syntax to enable users to make choices, find words, and complete sentences." (Quenneville, 2001)

Another useful tool is the Portable Note-Taking Device, which make the provision of "an efficient means to record ideas and classroom notes and to complete assignments and demonstrate writing creativity." (Quenneville, 2001)One example of this type of device is the AlphaSmart 3000 keyboard which has a very simple operating system and all the student has to do is turn it on and begin writing. The AlphaSmart automatically saves whatever is typed, the student may work back and forth between documents editing, copying and pasting and the AlphaSmart interfaces with both Macintosh and PCs.