Dyskolos the Play\'s Genre Plays

Dyskolos

The Play's Genre

Plays written after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. were generally termed as the New Comedy. Menander's Dyskolos, having been written and played in 317-316 B.C. may therefore belong to the New Comedy genre. However, there are particular factors of this genre that identify Dyskolos in this field. The prominence of a prologue is one of the most obvious features of this highly acclaimed play of Menander. The prologue's function was to basically inform the audience about the situation when the action begins. The play was composed of five acts that were divided by interludes which were performed by a chorus with whom do not play any part in the play proper, unlike other comic genres. Dialogues in the play were spoken, which makes the Dyskolos more realistic to the audience. Simple and ordinary words and speeches were used such that it becomes easy for its audience to understand. Events and characters in the play were realistic such that it represents a more realistic picture about the society for which it depicts. There is at the same time Menander's creation of fictitious characters that were vivid parodies of the different social types present in the society during that significant event in Greek history. Another factor why Menander's Dyskolos had become one of the bases of New Comedy genre was that the costumes worn by the actors on stage were more down-to-earth. Actors were dressed up in decent conventional contemporary clothes, although masks were still worn to separate the different social status in the society. The play was concerned with the individuality of characters and their relations to each other. The plot of the play continues to evolve which were determined by the reactions of these characters to the initial circumstances presented in the play. Love and marriage, family, and social status were of the same issues concerned by the play. There were still the presence of the poor and the rich, then of servants and slaves. Traditional features were altered such that allusions were created to make it more delightful for the audience http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html, para 13).

As a brief synopsis of the play, Pan, the God of woodlands, made the well-off Sostratos fall in love with a peasant girl he had seen when he went hunting. The girl (who has no name in the play) was the daughter of Knemon who is an unsociable and morose farmer who was left by his wife, Myrrhine, and his stepson, Gorgias. Sostratos sent his servant to see Knemon and let him know about his intentions to his daughter. However, as a misanthropic man as he is, Knemon he became infuriated at anyone who comes near him and his land, especially his daughter. The servants meeting with Knemon had become unpleasant that he swears not to go back to his place (Balme, 2001).

When Sostratos meet Knoemon's steposon, Gorgias offered to help him in his pursuit in marrying his stepsister. He informed Sostratos that the only man Knemon will permit to marry his daughter is a man like himself. Thus, Sostratos began tilling the land as a farmer. He had done this willingly to prove his honest interest of marrying Kenmon's daughter (Balme, 2001).

Suddenly, a cry goes up that Knemon has accidentally fallen down his own well. Georgias and Sostratos immediately jumped in to rescue him from his imminent death. These acts of Sostratos and Georgias have made Knemon see his own faults in treating them badly. Upon realizing this, he granted Georgias his farm and the right to decide for his daughter's marriage. Georgias looked no further and introduced Sostratos to Knemon, who eventually gave his approval to Sostratos of marrying his beloved daughter. (Balme, 2001)

The delighted Sostratos tells his own father, Callippides, of the wedding plan and suggests a second marriage between Georgias and his sister. Although drawn back for a moment of the idea, Callippides was immediately persuaded when Sostratos reminds him that immortality comes through generosity, not through the hoarding of wealth. (Balme, 2001)

Knemon's choice of man to marry his daughter is a clear representation of the different social status concerned in the play. Sostratos, being a member of a wealthy family was not welcomed in Knemon's house. However, an honest love of which Sostratos has felt for Knwmon's daughter did not prevent him from hanging on to finally marry her, even if he had to step down and left the convenient life his parents had provided him since.

The idea of love at first sight which was prominent in the play had its own political significance for the Greeks at that time. Sostratos' character represented the native Athenians whom at that particular period in the Greek history were limited to marrying native Athenians. The idea of an arranged marriage between two Athenians from 450 B.C. onwards was an implicit social norm. In Dyskolos, Sostratos eagerly desires to obey the norms of civic matrimony and membership, not out of a sense of civic duty or conscious intention, but purely for reasons of personal romantic preference. In this way, the play passes off the arbitrary juridical conventions of Athenian marriage as no more than human nature. (Lape, 2001)

Production Values of the Original Production

Initially performed during the Lenaean Festival in Athens, Dyskolos had won Menander first prize for the competition. (Balme, 2001) Usually staged in the end of January or the beginning of February, the Lenaean Festival chooses three comic writers to compete. The production of these plays were entirely in the hands of the state, thus, the expenses were shouldered by them. An archon were assigned to formally handle this part of the festival may assigned a wealthy Athenian to put up all the required money for the chorus. However, the expenses spent on the actors were handled solely by the state for which these actors were also awarded for their best performances (www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html).

The shift from the Old and Middle Comedy genres, the costumes in Dyskolos were more realistic. Property phallus and padding were no longer used and the characters were dressed like the average Athenian of the day. The use of masks was still implemented though to emphasize the varying expressions of the actors (www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html).

Colors were also used to represent classes in the society in the New Comedy genre. Old men and slaves wear white costumes, young men wear purple, and parasites in the play were asked to wear black or grey. White was worn by old men and slaves, purple by young men, black or grey by parasites. Bright colored tunic and multicolored mantle were worn by pimps. Old women were dressed in green or light blue, young women and priestesses in white. Procuresses wore a purple band around the head. Old men carried a staff with a bent handle. Rustics were dressed in a leather tunic and bore a wallet and staff and occasionally a hunting net. Pimps had a straight staff and carried an oil flask and a flesh-scraper. Heiresses were distinguished by fringes on the hems of their dresses. Finally, the covering for the foot was the same for all the characters and consisted of a light shoe similar to a flat slipper, which was simply drawn on, without being tied in any way http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html, para 20-22).

Menander's use of stage was, however, patterned to his predecessors. He created a contrast between the imagined domestic interior, composed of the private place of women, slaves and family, and the exterior which may be the streets where people meet, talk and share conflict the audience. The use of the stage was maximized such that they provide a distinction between the "inside" and the "outside" space in the different scenes in the play (Milnor, 2002).

Theatrical plays in the ancient times had very limited sceneries such that the scenes were very few. Menander's Dyskolos were one of which that has few scenes used. However, there were unlimited sceneries used in the play. One very important element of the scenery was the well beside Knemon's house that has witnessed all the significant scenes in the play. It is in the well where the climactic event in the play had happened - when one of the main characters, Knemon, nearly died, if not for the help of two people whom he had despised. In the Greek mythology and literature, dark, enclosed watery places such as the wells are symbolisms of a womb which is related to the symbolism of a maze for which Sostratos and Georgias had been blocked by a father figure in the character of Knemon (http://homepage.usask.ca/~jrp638/abstracts/cody.html).

The doors of Knemon's house were of important aspects of the play's scenery.

This interpretation of the well is reinforced by an extensive complex of similar meaning that leads up to this moment in the play. Its use and emphasis in the play clearly represents the access towards Knemon's personality with whom he had kept closed for other people. It was also a representation of his daughter's virginity against any man who would have wanted to marry her. The doors, are metaphors for the "gates of love" that any person would have wanted to be a part of http://homepage.usask.ca/~jrp638/abstracts/cody.html, para 7).

Props such as the vessels carried by the women characters in the play also represent the womb for which horrifies Knemon when his daughter had offered Sostratos to fill in the shrine next door. The use of the hoe for which Sostratos had borrowed from Gorgias is as well a Greek metaphor for sexual encounters http://homepage.usask.ca/~jrp638/abstracts/cody.html, para 8-9),

Acting Styles of the Original Production

Theaters in the ancient times were so huge that it is capable of housing thousands of spectators. The problems that confronted the Greek actors for such situations were that they were literally dwarfed on stage by their surroundings. Tiny movements may be invisible for the audience at the far end of the theater. Thus, there is a need for exaggeration on the actors' actions for emphasis. Costumes and props are helpful elements in this situation. However, facial expressions were one of the essential aspects in the play. Masks were therefore used to solve this problem. The principal traits of the character portrayed could be expressed in the mask, and a simple convention arose in which types of characters had their own types of masks. Therefore, the hero and heroine, the old man, the slaves, etc., were easily identifiable on first appearance because of the masks. As each character stepped upon the stage, he can easily be recognized at once by the audience as an old friend (www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html).

Because of the use of these masks, women's parts were played by men. As a result, there were no theater actresses when the original production of Menander's Dyskolos was staged http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html, para 25). Actors are at the same time allowed to play several roles in the play since costume and masks may set apart their characters or roles from one to another. Thus, the number of actors playing in a particular play may be very limited. Dyskolos, may nevertheless require only five to six actors, excluding the chorus though.

The masks used in the production speak of the different roles of the characters on stage. Humor in the play was probably based on both verbal and actual representations of each character. On the other hand, the masks and the exaggerated movements of the actors were more of the basis in the play's comic element. Dialogues may only add up to this unique element of New Comedy genre. The audience near the stage may be of advantage since they would not find it hard to identify every movement of the actors. Conversely, people at the far end of the theater may need a telescope in order to distinguish the acts. Thus, the dialogues are as well important.

The Cultural Context of the Play's Original Production

When the New Comedy genre in the Greek literature had become popular, Athens had been into an extremely frenzied political and social prodigy. After it had lost its political independence in 338 B.C. And the death of Alexander the Great, the city revolted against the Macedonian rule however defeated in the end. When Demetrius was appointed viceroy until 307 B.C., he favored the wealthy aristocrats, relieving them of their duties shouldered by the state. He was also responsible in stopping the theorica, a fund which paid the wages of working men during the days of festivals so that they could attend the theatre without loss of pay. Therefore, when these working men attend to the theater, a day's pay is lost, although they were not prevented from going such leisure activities. As a result, there was lesser audience watching the plays staged at that time, limiting only to those who can afford to go without considering a day's loss of pay at work http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html, para 3).

Therefore, Menander, having been experienced this situation had observed in the society the great difference in the social and economic status of the Athenians and the courtesans. Citizenship requires at this point 1000 drachmas that had worsened when Antipater implemented the 2000 drachmas for citizen status. Marriage had at this point, was deprived between the non-citizens and the Athenians (Lape, 2001).

Menander's comedies were obvious representations of the daily lives of the Athenian society - a society structured by inequalities against which the egalitarianism of the democratic political order was defined. In Dyskolos, Sostratos and Knemon's family were of different economic status although they were politically equal. Wealth was a prerequisite in experiencing passion in the society (Lape, 2001).

Dyskolos agrees to this situation such that one of its main characters had made eros operate as a kind of social solvent, dissolving distinctions between rich and poor and town and country to produce a more homogeneous and egalitarian social order. Sostratos's romantic passion for the daughter of a citizen he believes to be impoverished detaches social relations in the play from conventional constraints. There is, however, a crucial difference because Sostratos does not rape the heroine. Sostratos's wealth does not, as he anticipates, make him eminently suitable husband material but rather acts to call his character into question. It is precisely because Sostratos has not made his marriage a matter of necessity by raping the girl in advance that he must prove to his highly suspicious social and economic "inferiors" that he is actually worthy of the marriage (Lape, 2001).

Athens at that time had remained to the end of the distant past the center of art, science, philosophy and rhetoric, however life became comfortable and commonplace. In addition, because of these situations, more attention was given to personal characters in life that played a more significant role in comedy. The sorrows, joys, manners, and peculiarities of individual citizens became the subjects of both tragedy and comedic plays (www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/2/84.02.07.x.html).

Having seen themselves in the characters on stage, the general public appreciated the play at the time of its inception. The public had seen themselves in the characters played in Dyskolos, thus they were able to relate to the social, political and economic status in the play.

Critical Approaches through the Ages/Revivals

Even though Dyskolos had won Menander first prize since it was first presented on stage in 317 B.C., there was no evidence that there were several other productions held of the play since. The reason for such may be the loss of Menander's plays in the 7th and 8th centuries a.D. due to the Arab incursions and Byzantine neglect. However, in the third century B.C. Menander gained popularity over his 100 plays written for the Greeks. But after his success during his time, it was only after a millennium since Menander died when his comic plays had become popular (Hornblower & Spawforth, 2000).

On the other hand, Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence were said to have patterned their comic plays from Menander. They have remained the only New Comedy writers after Menander's numerous comic plays (Webster, 1953).

It has always been difficult to assess how far his Latin adaptors Plautus and Terence modified Menander's works for the Roman stage, although the tattered fragments of Dis Exapaton now reveal that Plautus' adaptation at Bacchides was freer than most scholars had previously imagined. Plautus' Cistellaria was based on Menander's Synaristosai ('Women Lunching Together'), Stichus on Adelphoi ('Brothers') 1, Terence's Adelphoe on Adelphoi 2, Andria on Andria ('Woman of Andros') and Perinthia, Eunuchus on Eunouchos ('Eunuch') and Kolax; Plautus' Aulularia has often been thought to derive from Menander (Hornblower & Spawforth, 2000).

It was in 1957 when the original and the complete papyrus manuscript of Menander's Dyskolos that the play had become once again popular. The papyrus had been purchased by the Swiss bibliophile Martin Bodmer, and studied by Professor Victor Martin of the University of Geneva (Balme, 2001).

In 2002, an adaptation of Dyskolos was staged in St. Elizabeth Greek Theater, Florham Park, New Jersey. However, no longer entitled Dyskolos, its director King Jones had used its English translation, "The Grouch" instead. Jones, who had been directing in theatre for a long time was still fascinated by the play himself. However, the setting of the play was somehow patterned to the modern society for which Sostratos' character is one who came from the city, although his wealth was still a representation of his power in the play. It ran for several days and brought again to life by the New Jersey Shakespeare Festival (Beckerman, 2002).

Due to the changing political rulers in Greece, theatre art was neglected leaving these significant plays like Mendanders' had been forgotten as time had passed. The social status and preferences of the society as well changed along with its rulers. Although significant cultural, social and political situations were experienced by the Greek society, production of plays was no longer the important consideration of the state.

Aside from this, several other adaptations of Dyskolos may have been staged after its initial production during the Lenaean festival, however they may have mot been as much popular that no record showed or reported its succeeding productions.

Historical Importance

The different personalities played by the characters in Menander's Dyskolos were of no difference from the characters played by the people in the modern society. The elements such as love at first sight and the differences in economic status of people in love remains a concern in the modern world that makes the play yet significant until now. This is probably one of the reasons why, even in the modern society, Dyskolos has been continually adapted in theatrical plays.

Dyskolos' social and political issues remain significant even in the modern culture encouraging the society to yet adapt or rather continuously produce the play. The political and social power possessed by the rich and the lack of which by the poor are issues that have been present in the ancient society, that sill stays behind in the modern society. Dyskolos shows the great difference in obtaining such power in the society, as well as this power's ability in obtaining the material things as well as sexual needs.

Although, some reviews had argued that Dyskolos shows talks of political issues during the time that its playwright had created it, Lape (2003) however disagrees.

Love, as the most common theme in Menander's comedies, politics was never discussed in his plays. On the other hand, it only tells the same basic story of how a young citizen in love overcomes various obstacles to win the young woman of his choice. This is obviously shown in Sostratos' personal choice of tilling the land with Gorgias to impress Knemon and show him how much he is willing to sacrifice just to win her daughter over him. (Lape, 2003)

Menander's focus on ordinary citizens and their freedom of choosing the person whom they love and wanted to marry have nothing to do with political issues such as democracy (Lape, 2003).

Moreover, love, which is a common and constant subject in any other literary genre, is yet the most marketable among any other subjects in theatre. The characters of the play, particularly Knemon's is probably the most viable among other characters since he represents the personalities of the members of the modern society who have set themselves apart from the world, creating their own world around them that disables other people to see the true character behind the walls that he created.

Menander was a skilful constructor of plots, an imaginative deviser of situations, and a master of variety and suspense. He wrote for the theatre, highlighting the memorably emotive detail both in scenes of psychologically convincing dialogue and in long, vivid narrative speeches which sometimes recall the messengers of 5th-century tragedy (Hornblower & Spawforth, 2000).