Educational boundaries of women in the Middle East

Education of Women in the Middle East

Educational Boundaries of Women in the Middle East

Middle Eastern culture represents a traditional society steeped in tradition. Muslim law clearly defines gender roles and largely dictates social structure in many countries. Under this system, women were denied even the most basic education, as it did not enhance their traditional domestic role in raising the children and running the house. The men were the providers and worked outside of the home. This was not a women's place and even if women had the desire, in many places, it was strictly forbidden. However, the emergence of a new middle class is changing these values. This research will examine changing roles and educational opportunities for women. It will support the thesis that educational opportunities are increasing as a result of fundamental changes within Middle Eastern society itself.

One of the key difficulties in studying women's roles in the Middle East and other aspects of Islamic culture, is that there is a plethora of information available, but not all of it is correct (Jaffee, 2004). Academic literature on many topics regarding Middle Eastern society are biased and present a slanted view of the situation. In addition, one can find many pieces that concentrate on the unusual or "exotic" rather than mainstream society (Jaffee, 2004). This research will attempt to eliminate biased pieces of research from the study.

Shifting Paradigms: Internal Influences

Muslim laws serve to reinforce patriarchal families and to subordinate the position of women within the family (Moghadam, 2004). In the past, and for the most part today, a women's place was in the home, raising the children and taking care of the family. Therefore, the educational opportunities available to them were limited (Moghadam, 2004). This was true for much of the Middle East, particularly traditionally Muslim countries.

Traditionally, women were not afforded educational opportunities that allowed them to strive for a greater social position outside of the home. However, continued exposure to egalitarian European ideology has begun to influence the lives of women in the Middle East. Currently, the Middle East is undergoing a demographic transition that includes enforcement of compulsory education, women's suffrage and other hallmark an egalitarian society (Moghadam, 2004).

Educational opportunities for women differ by country and by social class. Lower class women almost never have the opportunity to receive an education. However, in Saudi Arabia, elite class women will receive a private western-style education, but they will not seek employment (Moghadam, 2004). When they marry, they will abandon their education and return to a traditional domestic women's role (Moghadam, 2004).

Several variables have been proposed as possible explanations to these trends. A noticeable decline in fertility has been experienced on a global basis since the 1960s (Moghadam, 2004). It is believed that a reduction in mortality, reduced economic contributions from children and the opportunity costs of child bearing, and increased access to birth control may offer explanations for these trends (Moghadam, 2004). Decreases in the number of children in the family reduces the responsibilities of the women to care for them. Women in the emerging middle class were found to be the ones that were having the fewest children (Moghadam, 2004).

They are beginning to shift their focus away from the home. This type of shift does not occur suddenly but is likely to occur over time as more and more women seek opportunities outside of the home. The same type of transition was seen in the United States during the women's suffrage movement of the earlier part of this century and during the egalitarian movements of the 1960s. These changes represent internal changes that are occurring from within Middle Eastern society. Now let us examine some of the external factors that support these structural changes within Middle Eastern culture.

Global Influences

Whenever two cultures come into contact with one anther, regardless of the reason, they will have an influence on members of both societies. September 11, 2001 began the wholesale, intentional invasion of American ideals into the Middle East (Bergeron, 2003). American policy makers felt that the "backwardness" of the culture would begin to erode with little incident (Bergeron, 2003). However, this is not what happened. Traditional Middle Eastern cultures did not embrace the new, more democratic ways. New ideals did not have the competitive advantage and many held on to their traditional beliefs and lifestyles fervently (Bergeron, 2003). Failure of U.S. policymakers to understand cultural attitudes in the Middle East are a key reason for this failure (Bergeron, 2003).

Even though Middle Easterners did not react in the accepting manner that was expected, the influence of non-oriental ideas had an affect on ideals in the Middle East. These changes were more subtle are only now beginning to be able to be discerned from an academic standpoint. One of the difficulties in the change process is that authoritarian rule continues to dominate Middle Eastern politics (Zambelis, 2005). Autocratic regimes stand as a roadblock to fundamental change in many Middle Eastern nations. Slow response to emerging opportunities to women is only a symptom of these attitudes that support traditional values and resistance to change.

Mahallati (1996) conducted a study that examined the emergence of idealism in the Middle East. Although, this study was conducted more than ten years ago, it was felt that the principles that were discovered still apply today and that they offer explanations for the changes that are still occurring in the Middle East today. This study found that one of the greatest obstacles in the ability of the Middle East to apply needed social and political policies necessary to produce growth, while continuing to hold on to their ideology.

A more recent study continues to support the ideas presented by Mahallati, who examined the role of the Middle East in the 2002 Johannesburg summit. This study found that the Middle East was virtually ignored in discussions regarding international development (Henry, 2003). Globalization provides the framework for development, but in the Middle East, this framework clashes with old ideology (Henry, 2003). This is an inherent struggle that prevents Middle Eastern countries from embracing globalization.

A strong commitment to Islamic ideology is a key obstacle in the ability of women to achieve better educational opportunities as well. In Middle Eastern countries, religion and nationalism are not separate, but rather cannot be separated. It is not within the constructs of those societies to adopt policies that promote national growth if these policies compromise the fundamentals of their religion. The education and status of women is one of those ideologies that the Middle East is unwilling to compromise.

The status of women is one of many issues that are symptoms of the clash between the desire to modernize the economy and an unwillingness to release ideologies that have stood for thousands of years. Until 1985, much of the educational spending went to secondary education. Arab states outperformed many developing countries in this aspect (Henry, 2003). Yet, the Arab states are still considered to have a deficit in the area of education Educational dollars were not being spent on the education of women. As of 1995, over half of the region's women were still illiterate (Henry, 2003).

Searching For New Discourse

Globalization brings a new challenge to the Middle Eastern political scene. The struggle between pressures to enter into global marketplace and traditionally ideology continue to escalate. Recently, issues regarding the status of women and women's educational opportunities have been at the forefront of this debate. A new movement of feminists is beginning to have a voice in the Middle East, but this fledgling movement has not received tremendous support from international agencies (Afary, 2004).

When the Taliban took over in Afghanistan, women's rights took a step one thousand years backward. Under this regime, women were banned from employment, girl's schools were closed, and women were banned from appearing in public without the supervision of a close male relative (Afary, 2004). The suppression of women's education is achieved through the issuance of fatwas. Women's education is considered un-Islamic and a fatwa was issued in the early part of the 20th century that strictly bans it (Afary, 2004).

The younger generation of women in the Middle East are beginning to demonstrate defiance against the patriarchal society that was simply accepted as a fact of life by their mothers. Young girls have shed the black veils that are recommended, substituting brightly colored veils, with brightly streaked hair underneath them that barely meets the requirements of the law, but is not over the line of legality (Afary, 2004). This defiant attitude represents the underpinnings of revolution, one that will undoubtedly offer more opportunities for education and advancement for Middle Eastern women across the region. These outward signs are signals of major changes from within.

In 2003, Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan stressed the necessity of self-criticism in the Muslim world and the importance of striving for gender equality (Altunisik, 2005). This open acknowledgment of gender equality as a roadblock to the development of the Middle East received a standing ovation from the women listening to him in the hall (Altunisik, 2005). This is a small step towards the improvement of opportunities for women in the Middle East. However, Turkey is considered a "soft" power in the Middle East (Altunisik, 2005), so this small step alone is unlikely to result in immediate sweeping change. However, this does represent a small step and demonstrates that the women's movement is gaining strength.

Middle Eastern culture centers on the village and the local conditions Societies within the Middle East developed in geographically isolated pockets. Historically, these pockets had little contact with each other and developed their own ideologies and traditions that made them unique. Among those traditions is how they define women's roles and treat them in regard to education and career opportunities.

One such example of this distinction due to locality is the case of India. Southern India follows a matrilineal family system, while a patrilineal system is followed in the North (Ghandi, 2003). Despite the existence of laws Southern India that support the inheritance of property by women, tradition prevents them from achieving the reality of property ownership (Ghandi, 2003). Although, a traditional matrilineal system exists, women are still considered a disadvantaged group in that region (Ghandi, 2003). Similar trends are seen in the education of women, both in that region and elsewhere.

The Population Reference Bureau (PRB) conducted a survey of literacy rates among males and females in many countries throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa. Education is one of the key strategies being used to help improve the well-being of individuals. The findings of this study indicate that access to education are improving and that there has been some progress in the education of women (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2009). Many of the improvements have been in primary education, but gaps still exist in access to secondary education (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2009). However, overall, women are more likely to enroll in universities than they were in the past.

A summary of the data contained in the PRB report indicated that the highest levels of illiteracy among women are found in Iraq and Yemen, were over 75% of the women were still illiterate as of 2000 (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2009). Jordan and Qatar had the lowest rates of illiteracy at 16 and 17% respectively (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2009). Morocco and Egypt also had notable high rates of illiteracy, but not as high as Iraq and Yemen (Roudi-Fahimi & Moghadam, 2009). Illiteracy rates demonstrated considerable variation across the countries surveyed. They demonstrated dramatic differences between locations, supporting the importance of local culture and law on the ability of women to achieve an education.